IV.GMB ANJ
MY SISTER SYRIA - theatre performance on 23rd March
Meeting point: at 10:40 in front of the receptionist´s
http://english-theatre.cz/download.html
http://english-theatre.cz/My-Sister-Syria-script.pdf
pastirikova.gma@gmail.com
DICTIONARY WITH PRONUCIATION
http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/
SLOVNÍK K UČEBNICI
Please, feel free to consult it if you are not familiar with any words or phrases in your textbook, just click on the link below
EF_3e_Int_Slovak_WL-1.pdf
In case you are interested in revising for your final exam, check the following sites (nahrávky a testy s kľúčom B1 aj B2)
matura: https://www.matura.sk/maturitne-testy/anglicky-jazyk
núcem: http://www.nucem.sk/sk/maturita#1144,o118
zmaturuj https://zmaturuj.zones.sk/maturitne-testy/
HOMEWORK
Copy page 68 TENSE REVIEW
8 A conversation between old friends
1. haven't seen 2. have you been doing 3. saw 4. started 5. have you been working 6. enjoy
7. have written 8. have been researching
9 Forming the correct tense
1. 1. have been learning 2. like 3. have been 4 went 5. stayed 6. enjoyed 7. were
2 1. has been trying 2. left 3. has had 4. has been working 5. wants 6. has written 7. has had
3 have been living 2. moved 3. have been 4. has helped 5. have decorated 6. broke down
7. had 8. had 9. haven=t had 10. has been raining
Copy page 78 ACTIVE OR PASSIVE
1. are believed 2. are 3. was climbed 4. have stood 5. don=t need 6. are taken 7. has begun
8. have been left 9. think 10. has been ruined 11. wasn't measured 12. is said 13. hasn't been climbed 14. try 15. succeed 16. have happened 17. have been lost 18. started 19. has risen
20. don't go
SECOND CONDITIONAL
2 Correcting mistakes
2. If I had money, I'd go on holiday.
3. We could play football if the weather was nice.
4. I'd help you in the garden if my back didn't hurt.
5. If I were English, I wouldn't have to study the language!
ČÍTAJTE ZADANIE v slohu!!!! Aj štyrikrát!!!! Využite slovné spojenia a výrazy, ktoré sa v zadaní nachádzajú!!!!!
keeping my fingers crossed for you
in case you need some more grammar practice - YES books - there is one part with key
https://www.google.sk/search?q=english+guide&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-b&gfe_rd=cr&dcr=0&ei=5ByUWu-GEIKO8Qf1z7GoCQ
https://www.helpforenglish.cz/
http://www.oskole.sk/?skola=zakladna-skola&id_cat=9&a=180
writing - YES books, 316-323 plus TAB writing
please, read each topic at least three times so you know what to write about
in case you want some more practice in taking the tests
https://www.matura.sk/maturita
1st March
Kondicionály (conditionals) – podmienkové vety prehľadne a jasne vysvetlené pravidlá spojené s ich tvorbou a použitím.
Vedľajšie vety podmienkové sú také vety, ktoré v sebe nosia podmienku, ktorá musí byť splnená, aby sa dej hlavnej vety mohol odohrať, mohol prebehnúť. Pre tieto vety je najtypickejšia spojka IF.
Vedľajšie vety podmienkové majú dve základné časti:
- IF-CLAUSE (= vedľajšia veta ⇒ obsahuje podmienku)
- MAIN CLAUSE (= hlavná veta ⇒ uvádza výsledok, ktorý (ne)prebehne, (ne)prebehol po splnení podmienky)
Okrem nižšie spomínaných kondicionálov v angličtine poznáme aj tkz. “zmiešané podmienkové vety (kondicionály)“. Prelína sa v nich druhý a tretí kondicionál. Viac sa o tejto gramatike dočítate v samostatnom článku: Zmiešané kondicionály (mixed conditionals)
Nultý kondicionál (zero conditional)
Nultý kondicionál používame vtedy, ak hovoríme o zvykoch, zákonoch prírody, či stálych (všeobecných) pravdách.
Nultý kondicionál teda vyjadruje také deje, ktoré sú v prítomnosti pravdivé, ak dochádza k splneniu podmienky.
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- Ak mám dosť času, chodím plávať. → Čo robím, keď je splnená podmienka “mať dosť času”? – chodím plávať ⇒ je to teda všeobecná pravda o prítomnosti.
- Ak som smädný, napijem sa. → Čo robím, keď je splnená podmienka “byť smädný”? – idem sa napiť ⇒ je to teda všeobecný fakt v prítomnosti, ktorý nastane, ak na mňa dôjde smäd.
Nultý kondicionál tvoríme nasledovne:
| IF + present simple + present simple
Vedľajšia veta (if-clause), ale aj hlavná veta (main clause) obsahujú rovnaký čas → prítomný čas.
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- If you haven’t got your own radio, you can’t listen to it.
- If you don’t have a healthy diet, you get tired easily.
- If you don’t water plants, they die.
- If you heat water, it boils.
Prvý kondicionál (first conditional)
Prvý kondicionál používame vtedy, ak sa veta vzťahuje na budúcnosť.
Podmienka, ktorú uvádzame vo vete je reálna a teda je možné, že dôjde k jej naplneniu.
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- Ak budem mať dosť času, pôjdem plávať. → Čo urobím keď, bude splnená podmienka “mať dosť času”? – pôjdem plávať ⇒ je to teda reálna podmienka, je možné, že ten čas mať budem – navyše, je to typ podmienky, ktorá sa týka budúcnosti.
Prvý kondicionál tvoríme nasledovne:
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IF + present simple + will
Vedľajšia veta (if-clause) obsahuje prítomný čas a hlavná veta (main clause) obsahuje WILL.
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Po IF budúcnosť nevyjadrujeme pomocou budúceho času, ale budúci význam tu vytvára PRESENT SIMPLE. Existujú však niektoré špecifické situácie, kedy sa WILL môže použiť aj po IF. Na túto problematiku sa však pozrieme v inom článku.
- If I
will have enough time, I will go swimming.
- If you don’t hurry, you‘ll miss the bus.
- If we leave at eight o’clock, we will be there by half past nine.
Namiesto PRESENT SIMPLE môžete vo vete po IF (vedľajšej) použiť PRESENT CONTINUOUS (prítomný priebehový), či PRESENT PERFECT (predprítomný čas).
- If you have finished eating, we will go for a walk.
- If we are working till ten, we will have to go home by bus at eleven.
Namiesto WILL môžete v MAIN CLAUSE (hlavnej vete) použiť MODAL VERBS (modálne slovesá) ako napr. CAN / MAY / MIGHT / MUST / SHOULD alebo napr. IMPERATIVE (rozkazovací spôsob).
- If you have finished eating, we can go out. – Ak doješ, môžeme ísť von.
- If you go shopping, call me. – Ak pojdeš nakupovať, zavolaj mi.
Druhý kondicionál (second conditional)
Druhý kondicionál používame vtedy, ak hovoríme o situáciach, ktoré sú hypotetické, imaginárne, či vymyslené.
Tieto situácie sa týkajú prítomnosti, poprípade budúcnosti.
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- Keby som mal dosť času, šiel by som plávať. → Čo by sa stalo, keby bola splnená podmienka “mať dosť času? (hypotetická situácia – čo by bolo keby?) – šiel by som plávať ⇒ podmienka však splnená nie je (nemám dosť času), a preto mi neostáva nič iné, len na plávanie zabudnúť.
Druhý kondicionál tvoríme nasledovne:
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IF + past simple + would
Vedľajšia veta (if-clause) obsahuje minulý čas a hlavná veta (main clause) obsahuje WOULD + sloveso v základnom tvare.
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- If I had a million dollars, I‘d buy a car. - MINULÝ ČAS tu naznačuje nereálnu podmienku. “If I had a million dollars” znamená, že v skutočnosti toto množstvo peňazí nemám, iba si ho predstavujem.
- If I won the lottery, I would travel the world.
- If you missed the train, you would have to go home on foot. - MINULÝ ČAS tu vyjadruje imaginárny (vymyslený) budúci dej – zmeškanie autobusu.
Niekoľko príkladov druhého kondicionálu si ukážeme aj na piesní od Erica Claptona – Tears In Heaven:
Would you know my name
If I saw you in heaven?
Would you feel the same
If I saw you in heaven?
I must be strong and carry on
Cause I know I don’t belong here in heaven…
Namiesto PAST SIMPLE môžete vo vete po IF (vedľajšej) použiť PAST CONTINUOUS (minulý priebehový), či COULD (= vedel/mohol by).
- If it was not raining, we would go out.
- If I could sing, I would, but I can’t.
Namiesto WOULD môžete v MAIN CLAUSE (hlavnej vete) použiť MODAL VERBS (modálne slovesá) ako napr. COULD / MIGHT.
- If I had a million dollars, I could go abroad. – Keby som mal milión dolárov, mohol by som ísť do zahraničia.
- If I had a million dollars, I might go abroad. – Keby som mal milión dolárov, možno by som šiel do zahraničia. – MIGHT vyjadruje vo vete menšiu istotu
Sloveso BE v tvare WERE môžeme použiť i pri osobách I / HE / SHE / IT.
- If I were you, I would help her. (Keby som bol tebou – Keby som bol na tvojom mieste, pomohol by som jej.) - IF I WERE YOU je ustálená väzba.
- If he was / were so mean, he would …
Porovnajte prvý kondicionál a druhý:
- Prvý kondicionál: If I have enough time, I will go swimming. - Ak budem mať dosť času, pôjdem plávať. – ČO BUDE AK → reálnejšia podmienka, otvorená podmienka – môže byť splnená, možno budem mať dosť času / možno nie
- Druhý kondicionál: If I had enough time, I would go swimming. - Keby som mal dosť času, šiel by som plávať. – ČO BY BOLO KEBY → hypotetickejšia situácia, vzdialenejšia od reality. K naplneniu deja nedôjde, lebo podmienka nie je splnená.
Tretí kondicionál (third conditional)
Tretí kondicionál používame výlučne vtedy, ak hovoríme o minulosti. Situácie sú imaginárne / hypotetické.
Podmienka je nereálna a keďže sa deje týkajú minulosti, podmienka sa splniť už nedá.
Tretí kondicionál sa teda týka dejov, ktoré v minulosti prebehli / neprebehli.
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- Keby som bol mal dosť času, bol by som šiel plávať. → Čo by sa bolo bývalo stalo, keby bola bývala splnená podmienka “mať dosť času”? (hypotetická situácia v minulosti) – bol by som šiel plávať – podmienka však splnená nebola (nemal som dosť času) a preto som plávať nešiel.
Tretí kondicionál tvoríme nasledovne:
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IF + past perfect + would have done
Vedľajšia veta (if-clause) obsahuje predminulý čas a hlavná veta (main clause) obsahuje WOULD HAVE + minulé príčastie slovesa.
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- If we had taken a taxi, we wouldn’t have missed the plane. - PAST PERFECT uvádza nerálnu / hypotetickú podmienku v minulosti. “If we had taken a taxi” naznačuje, že sme si taxík nevzali a tak sme lietadlo nestihli.
- If I had been ill, I would have seen a doctor.
Namiesto WOULD HAVE + minulé príčastie môžete v MAIN CLAUSE (hlavnej vete) použiť MODAL VERBS (modálne slovesá) ako napr. COULD HAVE + minulé príčastie (bol by dokázal) / MIGHT HAVE + minulé príčastie (MIGHT vyjadruje vo vete menšiu istotu)
- If I had been ill, I might have seen a doctor. – Keby som bol býval chorý, možno by som bol šiel k doktorovi.)
Zhrnutie:
Nultý kondicionál (zero conditional)
- čo je, ak … (prítomnosť – všeobecné pravdy)
Prvý kondicionál (first conditional)
- čo bude, ak … (budúcnosť – reálna podmienka)
Druhý kondicionál (second conditional)
- čo by bolo, keby … (prítomnosť – hypotetická podmienka)
Tretí kondicionál (third conditional)
- čo by bolo bývalo, keby … (minulosť – hypotetická podmienka)
22nd NOVEMBER
https://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/if.htm
READ AND LEARN
27_education_uk_usa_cr.pdf
18_CARD_education.pdf
YES!book 56/TASK F
I am studying at Secondary School of Printing and Publishing. Now I am in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th class. This school prepares students for different professions in the fields of printing and publishing. A lot of its graduates start to work in publishing companies, printing houses, advertising agencies or graphic studios as web-designers (návrhári webových stránok), digital media designers (dizajnér digitálnych médií), pre-press technicians (technickí pracovníci zodpovední za prípravu tlače), printing machinery operators (operátori tlače), digital printing operators (operátori digitálnej tlače), and bookbinders (kníhviazači). When I graduate I would like to work in___________ as
8th October
English file - Vocabulary bank 161- EDUCATION Learn vocabulary with the correct pronunciation.
Revise Vocab bank 160, WB 40-41
9th October
You are learning the topic Mass MEDIA YES!book pages 146-151. To get more information learn the text IV.GMB KAJ tab on edupage. Task C/ written homework.
25th October
Revise modals of deduction and Vocabulary Bank page 160 The body (the whole page pls)
24th October
Be prepared for KAJ and learn the text from your tab and follow the instruction written there.
PRACTISE ENGLISH TENSES
http://www.englishguide.sk/test-english-tenses-review-1/
Active / Passive Overview
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Active
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Passive
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Simple Present
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Once a week, Tom cleans the house.
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Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom.
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Present Continuous
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Right now, Sarah is writing the letter.
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Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah.
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Simple Past
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Sam repaired the car.
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The car was repaired by Sam.
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Past Continuous
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The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store.
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The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store.
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Present Perfect
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Many tourists have visited that castle.
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That castle has been visited by many tourists.
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Present Perfect Continuous
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Recently, John has been doing the work.
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Recently, the work has been being done by John.
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Past Perfect
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George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license.
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Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license.
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Past Perfect Continuous
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Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris.
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The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.
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Simple Future
will
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Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM.
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The work will be finished by 5:00 PM.
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Simple Future
be going to
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Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.
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A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight.
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Future Continuous
will
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At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes.
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At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John.
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Future Continuous
be going to
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At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes.
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At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John.
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Future Perfect
will
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They will have completed the project before the deadline.
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The project will have been completed before the deadline.
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Future Perfect
be going to
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They are going to have completed the project before the deadline.
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The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.
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Future Perfect Continuous
will
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The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.
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The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
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Future Perfect Continuous
be going to
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The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.
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The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
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Used to
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Jerry used to pay the bills.
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The bills used to be paid by Jerry.
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Would Always
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My mother would always make the pies.
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The pies would always be made by my mother.
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Future in the Past
Would
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I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM.
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I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.
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Future in the Past
Was Going to
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I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.
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I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.
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12th October
ENGLISH FILE B + YES!BOOK
Read and learn Towns and Places, the 17th topic in Yes!book/ in scanned Yes!book yes-b1.pdf.
22_TOWNS_AND_PLACES.ppt
20.Towns_and_places.docx
those who were absent - WB p. 37-38, Vocabulary bank 159
WRITING - a film review p. 117, read it, fill in the gaps and hand in a similar one reviewing a different movie of your own choice.
10th October
SB Grammar Bank 142 / Passives ex. a, b
6th October
Learn about history of the book, Parts of the book (front matter, body matter and end matter) + Gutenberg+YES!book the topic 24 The Book - The Friend of People
A HISTORY OF THE BOOK
Beginnings of the Book
Sumerians
Writing with words was invented by the Sumerians about five thousand years ago (c.3100 BC). Sumer was located in what is now Southern Iraq.
. They wrote, e.g. on stone,
2. then they developed baked clay tablets, which can be regarded as the first books.
Egyptians
These were soon followed by
3. the papyrus rolls of the Egyptians, made from a plant native only to the Nile Valley. From around 500 BC the papyrus roll became dominant, although clay tablets survived for another five hundred years or so.
4. Wooden tablets followed. Students, merchants and others could write on the wax, then erase their markings and reuse the surface. These tablets could be connected in groups, which formed a model for the later codex book.
5. The Codex/bound book
The traditional modern form of the book is called the codex. It has multiple separate leaves of pages, bound between protective covers.
This format has been with us for about nineteen hundred years (from around the second century AD). The codex book (plural = codices) has survived so long because it has many unique advantages.
The first codex books used as the writing surface:
· papyrus (papyrus plant), later
· parchment (made from animal- goat and calfskin, it was more suitable for the new format)
By the 7th century AD, parchment had almost replaced papyrus altogether in Europe and the Middle East, and remained the preferred medium in Europe for about 800 years longer.
From paper to digital books
Made of bark and hemp
Paper was invented in China as early as 105 AD, and was at first prepared from bark and hemp. This paper developed to a high standard, and paper-making later spread to Japan (c.610 AD), and then to the Arab world along the Silk Road, via Samarkand in Central Asia. Pre-Columbian American civilizations also produced a more primitive bark paper from an unknown date.
Made of flax and hemp
The Arabs introduced paper into Europe via Spain; around 1276 AD into Italy and in 1495 into England. One reason for this slow advance was that European-style paper, made usually from flax and hemp, was at first inferior to parchment, especially for illustrations. So until it was improved, paper was not very suitable for the style of illustrated manuscript common in the West.
baked clay tablet papyrus plant Chinese block printing,
medieval illustrated manuscript Gutenberg printing press
rotary press first modern e-reader device (the Rocket eBook)
Digital printing
E-book
Audio-book
TASK
Write the missing words in the picture and sentences below. Choose from the following:
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acknowledgements
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contents
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illustrations
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appendix
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cover
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index
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bibliography
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footnote
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jacket
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blurb
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foreword
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preface
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chapter
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glossary
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title
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4 A _________________________ is a list of the books and articles that were used in the preparation of a book. It usually appears at the end.
5 The ________________________ are the photographs or drawings that are found in a book.
6 The __________________________ at the beginning or end of a book are where the author thanks everyone who has helped him or her, plus who supplied photographs, etc.
7 A ___________________________ is an introduction at the beginning of a book, which explains what the book is about or why it was written.
8 A ___________________________ is one of the parts that a book is divided into. It is sometimes given a number or a title.
9 An __________________________ to a book is extra information that is placed after the end of the main text.
10 A ___________________________ is a preface in which someone who knows the writer and his or her work says something about them.
11 An___________________________ is an alphabetical list that is sometimes printed at the back of a book which has the names, subjects, etc. Mentioned in the book and the pages where they can be found.
12 The __________________________ is a list at the beginning of a book saying what it contains.
13 The __________________________ is an alphabetical list of the special or technical words used in a book, with explanations of their meanings.
14 A ____________________________is a note at the bottom of a page in a book which gives the reader more information about something that is mentioned on the page.
15 The __________________________ is a short description by the publisher of the contents of a book, printed on its paper cover or in advertisements.
watch the following videos:
Parts of a book:
1.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DM1_ON0wIE8
2.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DQyntYcGwik
Johannes Gutenberg (1398-1468)
Pls, learn the basics about Johannes Gutenberg plus learn the vocabulary you can find below the text. In case you wish to download the stuff, just click on the following link J._Gutenberg2017._upravene.docx
Johannes Gutenberg (1398-1468)
Johannes Guttenber invented the printing press - the most important invention in modern times.
Without books and computers we wouldn't be able to learn, to pass on information, or to share scientific discoveries. Prior to (before) Gutenberg invented the printing press, making a book was a hard process. It wasn't that hard to write a letter to one person by hand, but to create thousands of books for many people to read was nearly impossible. Without the printing press we wouldn't have had the Scientific Revolution or the Rennaisance. Our world would be very different.
He was born in Mainz, Germany around the year 1398. He was the son of a goldsmith. We do not know much about his childhood. He moved a few times around Germany, but that's all we know for sure.
Inventions
Gutenberg took some existing technologies and some of his own inventions to invent the printing press in the year 1450. One key idea he came up with was moveable type. Rather than use wooden blocks to press ink onto paper, Gutenberg used moveable metal pieces to quickly create pages. He made innovations all the way through the printing process enabling pages to be printed faster. His presses could print thousands of pages per day vs. 40-50 with the old method. This was a dramatic improvement and allowed books to be acquired by the middle class and spread knowledge and education like never before. The invention of the printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe and soon thousands of books were being printed using printing presses.
Among his many contributions to printing are:
- The invention of a process for mass-producing movable type;
- The use of oil-based ink for printing books (farba na olejovom základe)
- Adjustable moulds (nastaviteľné formy)
- Mechanical movable type (mechanická pohyblivá sadzba)
- The use of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural screw presses (skrutkový lis) of the period
Combination of these elements into a practical system allowed the mass production of printed books.
Gutenberg's method for making type is traditionally considered to have included a type metal alloy (sadzba zhotovená zo zliatiny kovov) and a hand mould (ručná forma) for casting type (odlievanie sadzby). The alloy (zliatina) was a mixture of lead (olova), tin (cínu), and antimony (antimónu) that melted (tavila sa) at a relatively low temperature for faster and more economical casting (odlievanie), cast well (dobre sa odlieval), and created a durable type (a vytvoril trvácnu sadzbu)
First printed books
It is thought that the first printed item using the press was a German poem. Other prints included Latin Grammars and indulgences for the Catholic Church. His real fame came from producing the Gutenberg Bible. It was the first time a Bible was mass-produced and available for anyone outside the church. Bibles were rare and could take up to a year for a priest to transcribe. Gutenberg printed around 200 of these in a relatively short time.
The original Bible was sold for 30 florins. This was a lot of money back then for a commoner, but much, much cheaper than a hand-written version.
There are about 21 complete copies of Gutenberg Bible existing today. One copy is worth about 30 million dollars.
Vocabulary:
Printing press – tlačiarenský stroj invention – vynález
Pass on information – postúpiť, poslať ďalej informáciu
Share scientific discoveries – zdieľať, podeliť sa o vedecké objavy
Prior to – pred, skôr ako invent – vynájsť
Nearly – takmer Scientific Revolution – vedecko-technická revolúcia
Goldsmith – zlatník move – sťahovať sa
For sure – naisto, s istotou key idea –kľúčová/hlavná myšlienka (nápad)
come up with – prísť s čím, vymyslieť moveable type – pohyblivá sadzba
rather than – radšej ako, skôr ako wooden blocks – drevené bloky/kvádre
ink – farba, atrament metal pieces – kovové kusy
all the way through – úplne, v celom enable – umožniť
improvement – zlepšenie allow – dovoliť, povoliť
acquire – získať, dosiahnuť spread – šíriť
knowledge – vedomosti, znalosti education – vzdelanie
mass-produce – masovo vyrábať oil-based ink – farba/atrament na olejovom základe
adjustable – nastaviteľný mould – forma
wooden – drevený similar to – podobný ako
agricultural – poľnohospodársky screw press – skrutkový lis
mass production – masová výroba considered – považovaný
consider – považovať include – zahŕňať
type metal alloy – sadzba zhotovené zo zliatiny kovov alloy – zliatina
hand mould – ručná forma casting type – odlievanie sadzby
type – sadzba mixture – zmes
lead – olovo tin – cín
antimony – antimón melt – taviť sa
low temperature – nízka teplota durable – odolný, trvácny
item – položka, kus German – nemecký
poem – báseň indulgences – odpustky
Catholic Church – katolícka cirkev real – skutočný
Fame – sláva available – dostupný
Rare – vzácny, zriedkavý take up to a year – trvať až rok
Priest – kňaz transcribe – prepísať
Original – pôvodný commoner – bežný človek
Copy – výtlačok worth - hode
- páska na knihe - belly band
- záložka prebalu - flap (front flap/back flap)
- prebal - dust jacket (includes title, author, illustrator and the publisher on the front and ISBN on the back
- knižný chrbát - spine (book back)
- kapitálik - head band (horný kapitálik) tail band (spodný kapitálik)
- oriezka - edging; horná oriezka - top edge, spodná oriezka - tail edge, fore edge -predná oriezka/okraj
- záložková stužka - flag book mark
- papierová záložka - paper book mark
- chrbátnik - head cap
- polep - gluing
- knižné dosky - boards, back board - zadná doska, front board - predná doska
- knižná drážka vonkajšia - joint
- vnútorná knižná drážka - hinge
- predsádka - endpaper, zadná p. - rear endpaper
- vakát - fly leaf
- knižný hárok - sheet
- list - leaf
- knižná zložka - signature
- kníhviazačstvo - bookbinding
- knižný blok - text blok
- titulný list - title page
- vydavateľský záznam - copyright page
- protititulný obrázok - frontispice
- patitul - half-title/bastard title
- ľavá strana - verso, pravá strana - recto
watch the following videos:
Parts of a book:
1.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DM1_ON0wIE8
2.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DQyntYcGwik
PARTS OF A BOOK
What is a book's FRONT MATTER?
Front matter is the information that appears up front and first in a book. The front matter contains the nuts and bolts of the book’s publication—information like title, author, publisher, ISBN and Library Congress data. The front matter pages generally aren’t visibly numbered; when they are, the numbers appear as Roman numerals.
Here are the typical parts of a book's front matter:
Half title, sometimes called bastard title — is just the title of the book (you can think of it as a kind of half the title page)
Frontispice — is the piece of artwork on the left (“verso”) side of the page opposite the title page on the right (“recto”) side.
Title page – this is a page which contains the title of the book, the author (or authors) and the publisher.
Copyright page — includes:
the declaration of copyright (that is, who owns the copyright, generally the authors)
- other types of credits, such as illustrators, editorial staff, indexer, etc., and sometimes notes from the publishers
- copyright acknowledgments — for books that contain reprinted material that requires permissions, such as excerpts, song lyrics, etc.
- edition number — this number represents the number of the edition and of the printing. Some books will specifically note “First Edition”; others don’t declare that they are first editions, and instead is represent their printings with a number. In those cases, a first edition would look like:
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
- A second edition would be noted as:
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
- Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data – which includes information such as title, authors, ISBN, Library of Congress number, subject matter, year of publication.
Dedication — where the author honors an individual or individuals by declaring that the labor of the book is “To” [name or names]
Acknowledgements — the author’s thanks to those who contributed time and resources towards the effort of writing the book.
Table of Contents — outlines what is in each chapter of the book.
Foreword — is a “set up” for the book, typically written by someone other than the author.
Preface or Introduction — is a “set up” for the book’s contents, generally by the author.
ISBN
ISBN – International Standard Book Number precisely identifies a book, there should be no two books with the same number. The following publishing of the same book has a new number ISBN.
The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a unique numeric commercial book identifier based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code created by Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin, for the booksellers and stationers.
The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108.
Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with "Bookland" European Article Number EAN-13s.
An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a book. For example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007.
What is a book's BODY MATTER?
Body matter is the core contents of the book— often divided into segments:
The body matter is numbered with Arabic numerals beginning with the number “1” on the first page of the first chapter.
- Art program — anything that isn’t text (photographs, illustrations, tables, graphs, etc.) is considered to be part of the book’s art program. The art program might be integrated into each page or appear all together within a separate “signature” somewhere in the book.
In non-fiction literature there there could be:
- marginálie – marginalia
- poznámky pod čiarou – footnotes
- záhlavie- header, heading
What is a book's END MATTER?
End matter is the materials at the back of the book, generally optional.
Glossary — this is a listing and definitions of terms that might be unfamiliar to the reader.
Bibliography – most often seen in non-fiction like biography or in academic books,
a bibliography lists the reference sources used in researching the book.
Index – the index is placed at the end of the book, and lists all the major references in the book (such as major topics, mentions of key people in the book, etc.) and their specific, corresponding page numbers.
Publishing imprint: publishing and printing data: author(s), title, publisher, edition, printing house where a book was printed, circulation, number of publisher’s sheets, number of author’s sheets, production number
Errata (sg. erratum) – publishers issue an erratum for a production error
13 March
PLS, FINISH THIS TASK.
You have decided to contribute to your school magazine and write an article about your school trip. You have just come back from an English-speaking country.
Within your article include
-
where you went and how
-
accommodation and food
-
places of interest you visited and what you liked about them
-
what you did there and what happened (positive and negative event)
-
the best bit (what you liked most)
-
(B1 160-180 words, B2 200-220 word
WRITING AN ARTICLE
AN ARTICLE is usually written for an English-language magazine or newsletter. The main purpose is to inform, interest and engage the reader, so there should be some opinion or comment.
Hints
-
Add a short title to catch the reader's attention. Make sure it is relevant. You can use the one in the question or invent one of your own.
-
Introduce the topic. Although you don't know the readers personally, you can address them directly and ask them a rhetorical question. It helps to involve them.
-
Divide your report into sections according to the input. One or two paragraphs will do.
-
Develop the ideas in the task input. Remember .
-
Use a personal or more neutral style, but not formal (you might use contractions).
-
It is important that you show a range of structures.
-
Give examples where appropriate to bring your article to life
-
Use humour where appropriate.
-
Give a conclusion and summary in the last paragraph.
-
-
Useful language for an article
Involving the reader
If the answer is ..., you should.... What would live be like if..
Making the article lively and interesting
-
I was absolutely terrified when I realised... More importantly, it was something I...Not surprisingly, it's a good way of raising money. The tent was worryingly small for three people! It was the most amazing experience I have ever had
Developing your points
Giving your own opinion
Article – Model question 1
A charity event to remember
What is the most unusual way you've raised money for charity? How did you do it? What did you have to do? Was the event a success? Would you do it again?
Write us an article answering these questions.
We will publish the best articles on our website.
Write your article in 140-190 words in an appropriate style.
Article - Model answer 1
A charity event to remember
So why did I decide to do a 90-km walk in six days along the Great Wall of China? Well, the reason was that our local children's hospital needed to raise money or it would be close. However, I didn't realise how big a challenge it would be.
Before I went, I thought that I would be walking along a flat surface but when I saw the Great Wall, my heart sank. Part of the time we would be trekking up hundreds of high steps and, worryingly, some of the paths had steep falls on either side and there was nowhere to go because we were surrounded by mountains and forests. However, after a while, I started to love the experience. I was in one of the most amazing places on earth and the views were incredible.
In the end, the adventure was a great success. The hospital was delighted because a group of us managed to raise several thousand pounds.
Would I be keen to help the hospital again next year? Yes, but I think I'll try and find an easier challenge next time!
[+/- 190 words]
Article - Model question 2
TASK: You see this announcement in an international magazine.
Life on a desert island
Imagine you were on a desert island. What important object, person or place in your life would you miss most? What would be the reasons?
Write us an article answering these questions.
We will publish the best articles in the magazine.
Write your article in 140-190 words in an appropriate style.
Article - Model answer 2
Life on a desert island
How would you feel about living on a desert island? I can't imagine anything worse! I'd miss a lot of things but most of all, I would miss my home.
My home is a small house on the outskirts of a city. It was built about 50 years ago and has a small garden. In the summer, our country gets very hot but our house is always cool. You'd probably think our house is nothing special, but I have lived there all my life and all my friends live nearby. It's a happy place, where I feel completely safe. Whenever I go away, I look forward to coming back, lying on my bed, reading a book and listening to my brother and sister arguing downstairs!
I love travelling and meeting new people, but if I were on a desert island, I'd be away from the place I love most: my home; and I would hate that. [+/- 160 words]
Article- Model question 3
TASK
You see this announcement in an international magazine.
Articles wanted
Lucky winners
What would you do if you won a large sume of money. How would your life change?
Write us an article answering these questions. Give reasons.
We will publish the best articles next month.
Write your article in 140-190 words in an appropriate style.
Article - Model answer 3
Don't throw it all away!
Have you ever dreamt of becoming rich unexpectedly? Just imagine what your life would be like! However, some people who get rich quickly are very careless with their money and end up being poorer than they were before.
That's why I'd be very careful. I wouldn't want a completely different kind of life, so I'd start by putting some of it away, in case everything went wrong - set up a kind of "emergency fund". Then I would buy my hard-working parents a new home. They deserve it because they have always provided me with everything I've always wanted, even if it meant they had to go without. I would also give some money away to needy people who are struggling in the world and have no food. It would not be right to just spend the money on myself. Then I think I would take a year off from studying and travel round the world in great comfort. I've spent most of my live travelling on a limited budget and sleeping in hostels.
After that, who knows? I'll see, but I certainly won't be buying any luxury cars
Revise how to write an essay and focus on 4 model answers.
ESSAY WRITING
The essay should be well organised, with an introduction and an appropriate conclusion and should be written in an appropriate language and tone.
It is easier to have a balanced discussion comparing advantages and disadvantages, or ideas for and against a topic.
-
Read essay question and prompts very carefully in order to understand what you are expected to do.
-
All your ideas and opinions are relevant to the question.
-
Support your opinions with reasons and examples.
-
Think of a third idea of your own in addition to the two given prompts.
-
Ideas need to be expressed in a clear an logical way, and should be well organised and coherent. It is advisable to use up to 5 paragraphs:
-
Introduction
-
Prompt 1 development + reason(s)/example(s)
-
Prompt 2 development + reason(s)/example(s)
-
Prompt 3 development + reason(s)/example(s)
-
Conclusion (you may include your opinion here)
-
Varying the length of the sentences, using direct and indirect questions and using a variety of structures and vocabulary may all help to communicate ideas more effectively.
-
The correct use of linking words and phrases (e.g. but, so, however, on the other hand, etc.) and cohesive devices (e.g. using pronouns for referencing) is especially important in essays.
Hints
-
[INTRODUCTION and CONCLUSION]
- In the introduction, state the topic clearly, give a brief outline of the issue, saying why it is important or why people have different opinions about it.
- DO NOT express your opinion at the beginning of your essay.
- DO give your opinion in the final paragraph.
-
[SECOND and THIRD PARAGRAPHS]
- Each new paragraph has one main idea, stated in a topic sentence.
- Include relevant details to support the main idea: these might include examples, rhetorical questions (do no overdo it), controversial or surprising statements... If you include a drawback, give a possible solution, too.
-
[GENERAL]
- DO use a relatively formal language and an objective tone. Do not be too emotional.
- Remember to use linking adverbials to organise your ideas and to make it easy for the reader to follow your argument.
- In the exam, allow yourself time to check your grammar, spelling and punctuation thoroughly.
Linking words and phrases
Present your ideas clearly. Use connectors to link your ideas
Make sure you know how to use connectors appropriately (register, punctuation...). If you have any doubts, you should use a good dictionary to check.
-
To express personal opinions: In my opinion, I believe (that) / I feel (that) / it seems to me / in my view /as I see it / I think / personally
-
To show purpose: to / in order to / so as to / so that
-
To list ideas: Firstly / secondly / finally / In the first place / Lastly
-
To contrast ideas: However / although / in contrast / whereas / but / nevertheless / in spite of / despite
-
To describe a cause: Because / since / as / due to
-
To show a sequence: First of all / then / after that / eventually / in the end / finally
-
To add information: In addition / moreover / what is more / besides / too / furthermore / and
-
To describe a consequence: Consequently / as a result / therefore / so / thus / for this reason / that is why
-
To conclude the topic: In conclusion / to sum up / in short / all in all
Model questions and answers
Essay 1
TASK
Is is a good thing that countries spend a lot of money on their heritage?
Notes
Write about:
1. preserving the past
2. investing in the future
3. ________ (your own idea)
Write your essay in 140-190 words in an appropriate style.
Essay 1 - Model answer
Most countries spend large sums of money protecting their national heritage. However, there is strong argument that we should look forwards and not backwards, spending less money on preserving the past and more on securing our future.
On the one hand, it is important that we remember our heritage. Once it is lost, it is lost forever. Caring for important monuments helps with this. It also attracts tourists, which has an economic benefit for everyone.
On the other hand, governments spend a lot of money on museums and keeping historic sites in good condition when poor people need houses to live in and businesses need better roads for transporting their goods.
Another argument is that by making heritage sites attractive for tourists -for example, by putting on entertainment - we give a very untrue picture of the past and sometimes damage the local environment.
To conclude, while there are strong arguments for not spending too much on preserving the past, I believe it is important to protect the most famous sites for the future generations but it is not realistic to try and save everything. We need to invest in the future too.
(+/- 190 words)
Essay 2 - Model question
TASK
Science is very important in the 21st century. How do you think it could be made more appealing to young people?
Notes
Write about:
1. television programmes
2. interactive museums
3. ________ (your own idea)
Write your essay in 140-190 words in an appropriate style.
Essay 2 - Model answer
Although young people love gadgets and technology, some see science as uninteresting and 'uncool'. Over time, the number of young people, particularly girls, pursuing science and technology studies and careers has dropped.
One way in which science could be made more attractive would be to have lively television programmes presented by celebrities, with subjects which were relevant to the experience of the young. We live in a celebrity culture and children identify with well-known young people.
Another idea would be to set up interactive science museums in every town, where parents could take their children. It is much better to teach children the principles of science through hands-on experiments than to lecture them in a classroom.
Of course, there would be more incentives if the average scientit were better paid and young people were made aware of the range of jobs available. A lot of people are put off a scientific career because they think it means working in a badly paid job in a boring laboratory.
Whichever way we choose, it is vital that more young people are attracted to science, since society's prosperity depends largely on continuous scientific progress.
(+/- 190 words)
Essay 3 - Model question
TASK
Is it better to live alone or with someone else?
Notes
Write about:
1. independence
2. money
3. ________ (your own idea)
Write your essay in 140-190 words in an appropriate style.
Essay 3 - Model answer
Nowadays more people are deciding to live by themselves. Some people claim this is more enjoyable and in young people it develops a sense of responsibility, whereas others disagree.
The main advantage of living alone is that there is nobody to tell you what to do, so you can live your life in your own way. What is more, you can organise or decorate your house as you want. There is no one else to disagree with.
On the other hand, it can be quite lonely for some people. By nature, we are social animals. Secondly, it is more expensive because you have to pay all the rent and bills yourself, so you have less money to enjoy yourself. Last but not least, it can be quite hard to find a nice flat for one person, so you might not be able to live in the best area.
To sum up, there are strong arguments on both sides. In conclusion, I believe that living alone is better for older people who have more money and like privacy but not for young people who need to share the costs.
(+/- 180 words)
Essay 4 - Model question
TASK
Whether you are happy or not depends on the personality you are born with. Do you agree?
Notes
Write about:
1. money
2. health
3. ________ (your own idea)
Write your essay in 140-190 words in an appropriate style.
Essay 4 - Model answer
Some people claim they are naturally cheerful. However, in my view, how we lead our lives is the main reason we are either happy or unhappy.
Take money, for example. Money doesn't automatically make us happy. In fact, it makes some people very unhappy because they are frightened of losing what they've got. On the other hand, if we're not greedy and don't spend it foolishly, it can reduce stress and give us security.
Then consider health. If we eat badly, get too little sleep and don't exercise, our health will decline and make us miserable. Eating well and going for lovely long walks in the countryside can make us feel better generally.
The third thing I think is important is to have a positive outlook on life. We should all enluy things like music and being with our friends. At the same time, it's important to spend time alone and live as simply as possible, which is not easy in the 21st century!
All these make a big difference to our happiness, no matter what our natural temperament.
(+/- 170 words)
10th March
REVISION: IRREGULAR VERBS
http://www.gjar-po.sk/~visnovskyt4d/irregularverbs.pdf
Learn FASHION (the worksheet and vocabulary list). Think over the tasks and answer the questions.
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_1.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_2.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_3.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_7.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_8.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_9.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_10.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_11.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_20.htm
DEPENDENT PREPOSITIONS
https://elt.oup.com/student/englishfile/intermediate3/vocabulary/dependent_prepositions/?cc=hr&selLanguage=en
http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/verbs-and-prepositions-exercise-1.html
http://speakspeak.com/english-grammar-exercises/intermediate/verb-and-preposition-combinations
GRAMMAR BANK page 147/ 8B ex.a ,b
Prosím, v piatok tento týždeň odovzdáte nasledovné slohy. Upozorňujem vás, že v piatok je záväzný termín, nakoľko je nutné, aby som s vami tie slohy prešla a povedali sme si, čo tam musí byť a ako to napísať. Ak neviete, ako sa píše článok, resp. list, máte vzory na tabe s názvom writing.
témy:
1. Článok do časopisu (úprava: úvod - všeobecný, jadro - môj hrdina, pričom môžete každý bod rozvinúť v samostatnom odstavci, záver - zhrnutie a posledný bod zadania, čo je vlastne váš názor)
Role Models and Idols
You decided to contribute to the magazine PEOPLE AROUND US and write an article (160-180 words) about a person who is your hero. Answer the following questions:
- Is it a real person or a film/literature hero?
- What does your hero look like? Describe his/her appearance.
- What are some of the traits (črty) that make this person a hero to you?
- What is his/her lifestyle like? Describe his/her habits
- Do you want to live like your hero? Why yes/why not?
2. List priateľovi/rozprávanie príbehu (pozor na úpravu: adresa, dátum, oslovenie, štruktúra, odstavce, zdvorilostná formulka..)
téma: The worst/best holiday/day in my life
Write a letter (160-180 words) to your English penfriend about the worst/best day/holiday of your life. Include the following points:
- where you went and how
- who you went with
- what you did there
- what happened
Pozor - použite minulé časy - jednoduchý, priebehový aj predminulý (jednoduchý, priebehový)
Prehľad časov nájdete pod TAB GRAMMAR
http://www.englishguide.sk/test-english-tenses-review-1/
I will tell you more about the test after your spring holiday. You will have been revising by that time: Reported speech, conditionals, relative clauses and question tags + VOCABULARY BANK IN EF the topic EDUCATION
For those students who were absent at school on 17th February (Friday):
The latest grammar was explained and practised: Grammar bank 150-151 + WB 63, 66/2Grammar ex. a,b. Do the exercises yourselves! Consultation possible.
Grammar bank 146 / revise Reported speech and do the two exercises +
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/reported.htm
REPORTED/INDIRECT SPEECH
Backshift
You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Past (e. g. He said). This is called backshift. Example:
He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.
|
Direct Speech
|
Reported Speech
|
|
Simple Present
|
Simple Past
|
|
Present Progressive
|
Past Progressive
|
|
Simple Past
|
Past Perfect Simple
|
|
Present Perfect Simple
|
|
Past Perfect Simple
|
|
Past Progressive
|
Past Perfect Progressive
|
|
Present Perfect Progressive
|
|
Past Perfect Progressive
|
|
Future I (going to)
|
was / were going to
|
|
Future I (will)
|
Conditional I (would)
|
|
Conditional I (would)
|
The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn’t, ought to, used to do not normally change.
Example:
He said, “She might be right.” – He said that she might be right.
In the following table, you will find ways of transforming place and time expressions into reported speech.
|
Direct Speech
|
Reported Speech
|
|
today
|
that day
|
|
now
|
then
|
|
yesterday
|
the day before
|
|
… days ago
|
… days before
|
|
last week
|
the week before
|
|
next year
|
the following year
|
|
tomorrow
|
the next day / the following day
|
|
here
|
there
|
|
this
|
that
|
|
these
|
those
|
REPORTED SPEECH/Indirect speech
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/reported.htm
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech
http://www.usingenglish.com/quizzes/102.html
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech/exercises?09
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech/exercises?04
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech/exercises?06
REVISE CONDITIONALS I, II, III
http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/conditionals.html
http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/first-second-third-conditionals-exercise.html
Conditional sentences
Conditional sentences are sometimes confusing for learners of English as a second language.
Watch out:
- Which type of conditional sentences is it?
- Where is the if-clause (e.g. at the beginning or at the end of the conditional sentence)?
There are three types of conditional sentences.
1. Form
2. Examples (if-clause at the beginning)
3. Examples (if-clause at the end)
4. Examples (affirmative and negative sentences)
* We can substitute could or might for would (should, may or must are sometimes possible, too).
- I would pass the exam.
- I could pass the exam.
- I might pass the exam.
- I may pass the exam.
- I should pass the exam.
- I must pass the exam.
Verb Patterns - see the explanation below
môžete si precvičiť http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2008083006-test-verb-patterns-1
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2008110205-test-verb-patterns-2
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2011102302-test-verb-patterns-3
gerundium vs infinitív http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2006071601-gerundium-vs-infinitiv-cviceni-1
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2006071602-gerundium-vs-infinitiv-cviceni-2
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2006071702-gerundium-vs-infinitiv-cviceni-3
Verb Patterns (slovesné vzorce)
Slovesné vzorce, ač to zní matematicky, nemají s matematikou nic společného a jedná se v podstatě o jev, kdy se nám ve větě objeví dvě slovesa za sebou.
Budu konkrétní:
I can ski. – sloveso v infinitivu bez TO
I want to ski. – sloveso v infinitivu s TO
I enjoy skiing. – sloveso v gerundiu (-ing)
I talked about skiing. – slovesná vazba s předložkou
Sečteno a podtrženo, s jinými tvary druhého slovesa ve větě se nemůžete v angličtině setkat. Problém je však v tom, kdy který tvar zvolit a pravidla tady bohužel jsou jen minimální. Proto nezbývá nic jiného, než se naučit každé sloveso a jeho “vzorec” samostatně.
Není třeba nikam spěchat. Mírně pokročilí studenti (a někdy i začátečníci) asi už znají všechny čtyři výše zmíněné příklady. Úmyslně jsem v úvodu zvolil slovesa základní, která patří do základní slovní zásoby.
S vyšší pokročilostí ovšem přibývají další a další slovesa, ale jelikož se s nimi nesetkáte tak často jako např. se slovesem WANT, nemusíte si být jisti, který tvar druhého zvolit. Pokročilejší studenti se pak vzorce musí jednoduše naučit / nadrtit / nabiflovat.
Slovesa následovaná infinitivem bez TO
V této kategorii je sloves naštěstí jen několik. Hlavně jde o modální slovesa, kde studenti většinou nechybují.
1) modální (způsobová) slovesa
základní = can, may, must
pokročilejší = could, might, will, would, shall, should
I can do it.
May I help you?
You must obey!
Podrobný článek o modálních slovesech si můžete přečíst zde
2) slovesa LET a MAKE
Další dvě specifická slovesa jsou LET a MAKE.
Let me open the door for you.
Don't make me laugh!
V trpném rodě se sloveso MAKE váže s inifitivem s TO:
I was made to do it.
3) sloveso HELP
Se slovesem HELP můžete použít infinitiv bez TO, ale také s TO:
He helped her open the door.
He helped her to open the door.
4) sloveso DARE
Poslední v této kategorii je sloveso DARE (opovážit se, troufnout si), které může být modální (způsobové) sloveso, a váže se tady s infinitivem bez TO. Pracujeme s ním pak jako s modálním slovesem.
zápor: DARE + NOT = DAREN'T
otázka: DARE YOU…?
Používá se však i jako běžné sloveso, se kterým pracujete jednoduše a váže se s infinitivem s TO, ale také bez TO.
zápor: DON'T DARE
otázka: DO YOU DARE…?
Jako modální sloveso (bez TO):
I dare not go. = I daren't go.
Dare you do it?
How dare you do it?
Jako běžné sloveso (s TO i bez TO):
I didn't dare (to) go.
Do you dare (to) do it?
Nobody dared (to) speak.
Slovíčko DARE patří také do kategorie sloves, po kterých je nejprve předmět a poté infinitiv (tato kategorie je zmíněna níže), a znamená pak “vyzvat někoho k něčemu”
I dare you to drink it!
Samostatný článek o slovesu DARE si můžete přečíst zde
Slovesa následovaná infinitivem s TO
Tato kategorie je společně s následující kategorií ‘gerundium’ nejobsáhlejší, a taky se pokročilejším studentům nejčastěji plete.
“Bude po slovese infinitiv nebo gerundium?” Nezbývá nic jiného, než se naučit jednotlivá slovesa.
Bohužel není vše černobílé a anglická gramatika je toho důkazem. Problematika INFINITIV vs. GERUNDIUM není jen o tom naučit se zpaměti všechna spojení. Jde to ještě dál: některá slovesa se mohou pojit s infinitivem NEBO s gerundiem a nedochází ke změně významu. Jsou tu však i taková slovesa, kde dochází ke změně ve významu. Více se dozvíte níže.
Ale nepředbíhejme. Následují příklady sloves, po kterých je infinitiv. (obsáhlejší seznam naleznete níže)
Slovesa v této kategorii se dají rozdělit na dvě základní skupiny:
1) slovesa, po kterých je přímo infinitiv
afford: I couldn't afford to buy the book.
agree: Susan agreed to help them.
appear: He appears to be tired.
decide: I have decided to leave on Friday.
hesitate: Don't hesitate to contact us.
hope: Jack hopes to arrive on Saturday.
offer : They offered to help us.
plan : I am planning to have a party.
refuse: I simply refuse to believe it.
want: I want to tell you the truth.
wish: She wishes to come with us.
2) slovesa, po kterých je nejprve předmět a pak infinitiv
ask: I asked Jim to help us.
expect: I expect you to be here on Monday.
hire: She hired a boy to mow the lawn.
instruct: He instructed them to be careful.
invite: Harry invited the Jacksons to come to his party.
lead: The article leads me to believe it's true.
order: The judge ordered me to pay a fine. teach: My brother taught me to swim.
want: I want you to do it.
Určitě si všimnete, že některá slovesa jsou v obou kategoriích – může po nich být přímo infinitiv, nebo nejprve zájmeno a až pak infinitiv. Např:
I want to do it.
I want you to do it.
Slovesa a vazby následované gerundiem (-ing)
Další velice obsáhlá sekce jsou slovíčka následovaná gerundiem (sloveso zakončeno -ing). I tato kategorie má několik podsekcí, jelikož sem patří i určité vazby. Opět si uvedeme jen několik příkladů, podrobnější seznam najdete níže.
1) slovesa následovaná gerundiem (-ing)
admit: He admitted stealing the money.
avoid: He avoided answering my question.
deny: She denied committing the crime.
enjoy: We enjoyed visiting them.
fancy: I don't really fancy doing it.
imagine: Can you imagine living here?
keep: I keep hoping he will come.miss: I miss being with my family.
postpone: Let's postpone leaving until tomorrow.
quit: He quit trying to solve the issue.
recall: I don't recall meeting him before.
recommend: I recommended calling her.
suggest: She suggested going to the cinema.
Pozor si dejte například na sloveso suggest:
She suggested going to the cinema.
She suggested that he go to the cinema.
Podobně se chovají například slovesa recommend, propose, request, insist atd. Tento pro mnohé zvlášní gramatický jev se jmenuje konjunktiv a více se o něm dočtete v samostatném článku zde.
2) vazby se slovesem GO
Pokud jdeme nebo jedeme dělat nějakou činnost (většinou sport nebo hobby), používáme sloveso GO, po kterém je také vždy gerundium. Zde jsou příklady:
go bowling, go camping, go canoeing, go dancing, go fishing, go hiking, gohunting, go jogging, go running, go sailing, go shopping, go sightseeing, goskating, go skateboarding, go skiing, go swimming
I usually go swimming in summer.
I went shopping yesterday.
Po slovesu GO může být i infinitiv (s TO i bez TO), pokud se nejedná například o oblíbenou činnost, ale o konstatování, že jdete něco udělat:
I should go to see a doctor.
I should go see a doctor.
I should go and see a doctor.
POZOR!
Zde bych rád zmínil jednu typickou chybu.
Pokud chci říct Uvažuji, že pojedu lyžovat, dochází k zajímavému jevu:
jet lyžovat = go skiing (vazba se slovesem go, viz výše)
uvažovat = consider (sloveso, po kterém je vždy gerundium)
Celá tato věta je v přítomné čase průběhovém, proto:
I am considering going skiing.
Ano, budou tady tři slovesa s koncovkou -ING za sebou.
Jedná se o průběhový čas, proto I AM CONSIDERING.
Sloveso ‘consider’ se váže vždy s gerundiem, proto je GOING.
‘Jet lyžovat’ je ve vazbě GO SKIING.
Studenti se na konci věty většinou “vylekají” a řeknou si, že nemůže být ING 3× za sebou a udělají chybu jako třeba I am considering going to ski.
Tady jsou jasná pravidla a není důvod je porušovat, i když se vám zdá, že “to tak přece nemůže být”.
3) ustálená spojení následovaná gerundiem
Zde bych rád nakousl ještě jednu kategorii. Nejedná se o klasický slovesný vzorec, protože se tady nebudou za sebe klást dvě slovesa, ale jedná se přímo o vazby.
have a good time: We had a good time playing soccer.
have a hard time: We had a hard time finding the house.
have a difficult time: I will have a difficult time making up my mind.
have fun: We had fun playing football.
have trouble: We had trouble looking for our car.
have difficulty: We had difficulty filling in the form.
4) vazby sloves s předložkami (následované gerundiem)
Asi nebude novinkou, že po předložkách je vždy gerundium, ale problém je vybrat tu správnou předložku. Tady opět nezbývá nic jiného, než se tyto vazby naučit. Proto bez dlouhého vysvětlování následuje seznam těch nejužitečnějších:
ABOUT
argue about: We argued about going on holidays.
be excited about: I am excited about going on holiday.
be thrilled about: I was thrilled about going camping.
be worried about: I am worried about taking the exam.
ABOUT / OF
complain about / of: Susan complained about having a headache.
dream about / of: I dream about going to Hawaii.
speak about / of: He spoke about being concerned about his health.
talk about / of: Peter talked about being too busy.
think about / of: I was thinking about going on holiday.
FOR
apologize for: David apologized for being late.
be responsible for: Who is responsible for taking care of invoices?
be thankful for: I was thankful for not having to go there.
blame (sb) for: Don't blame me for breaking it.
forgive (sb) for: Please forgive me for doing that.
have an excuse for: He always has an excuse for not coming.
have a reason for: Paul has a good reason for doing it.
thank (sb) for: Thank you for coming.
FROM
discourage (sb) from: My girlfriend discourages me from racing.
keep (sb) from: She kept me from finishing the task.
prevent (sb) from: He prevented her from going there.
prohibit (sb) from: Paul prohibited us from smoking.
stop (sb) from: He stopped the child from running into the street.
IN
believe in: I believe in doing good deeds.
be interested in: I am interested in skiing.
participate in: He participated in searching.
succeed in: She succeeded in setting up her own business.
OF
approve of: My parents don't approve of me coming home so late.
be accused of: She was accused of stealing the present.
be capable of: He isn't capable of telling lies.
be guilty of: The jury found him guilty of stealing the bike.
be tired of: I am tired of having to work all day.
instead of: *Instead of* watching TV, I decided to go to the cinema.
take advantage of: You should take advantage of living here.
take care of: She took care of welcoming the guest.
ON
concentrate on: I concentrated on doing it perfectly.
depend on: Our health depends on taking time to recharge our batteries.
insist on: I insist on knowing the whole truth!
plan on : I'm planning on attending the meeting.
rely on: I really relied on being accepted to that school.
TO
admit to: She admitted to going there secretly.
be accustomed to : I am accustomed to working late hours.
be committed to : We are committed to providing the best medical care.
be opposed to: She was opposed to him doing such things.
be used to: I am used to getting up early.
confess to: She confessed to having an affair.
look forward to: I look forward to seeing you.
object to: I object to him saying such things.
POZOR!
Poslední část je pro studenty nejsložitější. Má to jeden velmi prostý důvod – předložka TO. Problém je v tom, že tady je TO předložka, a proto je po ní gerundium (to going). Jenže slovíčko TO může být taky částice infinitivu (to go).
A v tom je právě kámen úrazu. Studenti mají tak silně zakořeněnou právě infinitivní vazbu TO GO, že jim spojení TO GOING přijde jednoduše špatně.
Výsledkem je pak klasická chyba např. v dopisech: I look forward to see you.
Sloveso těšit se (look forward) je vždy následováno předložkou TO.
těšit se NA něco = look forward TO something
I look forward to seeing you.
Několikrát se mi stalo, že mi studenti jednoduše nevěřili, protože již tolikrát viděli v dopisech např. “I look forward to see you” nebo “I look forward to hear from you.”
Pokud se vám to taky nezdá, tak přemýšlejte se mnou:
go swimming = jít plavat
I talked about going swimming.
Tady vás spojení about going asi nepřekvapí. ABOUT je přece předložka.
I am looking forward to going swimming.
Tady je spojení to going a i zde je předložka, tentokrát TO.
Stejné by to bylo napřiklad v další klasické chybě
I am used to get up early.
jsem zvyklý NA něco = I am used TO something
TO je tady předložka, proto bude správně věta:
I am used to getting up early.
INFINITIV vs. GERUNDIUM
Když se na tento gramatický jev podíváte jako na celek, tak zjístíte, že první krátká kategorie sloves, po kterých je infinitiv bez TO, je docela jasná – jde skoro výhradně o modální (způsobová) slovesa. Další kategorie jsou vazby. Co je ovšem největší problém i pro pokročilé studenty, to je INFINITIV vs. GERUNDIUM.
Jak jsme si ukázali výše, někdy je po slovesech infinitiv, někdy gerundium. V odstavcích výše bylo jen několik příkladových sloves, podrobnější seznam najdete v závěru článku.
Další problém však je, že některá slovesa se mohou pojit jak s infinitivem, tak s gerundiem. A někdy dochází ke změně ve významu a někdy ne.
1) infinitiv vs. gerundium – bez změny významu
Jako první uvedu slovesa z té jedodušší kategorie – ať po nich dáte infinitiv nebo gerundium, význam zůstává stejný:
advise: She advised me to wait. / She advised waiting.
can't bear: I can't bear to wait / waiting in long lines.
begin: It began to rain / raining.
continue: He continued to speak / speaking.
prefer: Janet prefers to walk home. / I prefer walking to running.
start: It started to rain / raining.
V zásadě však platí pravidlo, že pokud je již ve větě jedno gerundium, a my si můžeme vybrat, volíme infinitiv: It's starting raining It's starting to rain
Pokud ve větě gerundium není, výběr je na nás:
It started raining = It started to rain
Malý problém nastává u sloves ADVISE a PREFER – jejich význam se však nemění:
ADVISE
Uvedeme-li ve větě předmět, musíme použít infinitiv:
He advised me to buy a Volvo.
Bez předmětu je pak nutno použít gerundium:
He advised buying a Volvo.
V trpném rodě je však i bez zájmena infinitiv:
I was advised to buy a Volvo.
PREFER
Samotné sloveso PREFER se váže většinou s infinitivem:
I prefer to stay home.
Se slovesem PREFER se však váže předložka TO, jako např. ve větě:
I prefer tea to coffee.
Proto musíme použít u dalších sloves gerundium:
I prefer staying home to going to the concert.
S infinitivem je to taky možné, ale věta bude složitější:
I'd prefer to stay home rather than to go to the concert.
Ve zkrácené podobě pak:
I'd prefer to stay home than go to the concert.
2) infinitiv vs. gerunidum – změna ve významu
Některá slovesa se vážou s infinitivem i gerundiem, ale dochází ke změně ve významu:
REMEMBER + FORGET
U těchto dvou sloves platí stejné pravidlo, proto si je vysvětlíme společně.
She always remembers to lock the door.
He often forgets to lock the door.
Ve větách výše chronologicky nejprve přichází děj slovesa remember / forget a pak činnost:
nejprve si vzpomene, pak zamkne
nejprve zapomene, aby pak zamkl
I remember seeing the Alps for the first time.
I'll never forget seeing the Alps.
V těchto větách naopak nejprve přišla nějaká činnost, na kterou budu vzpomínat nebo zapomenu:
nejprve jsme viděl Alpy, a to si pak budu pamatovat
nejprve jsem viděl Alpy, a na to pak nikdy nezapomenu
Pro lepší pochopení se nyní pojďme věty se zamykáním a Alpami přehodit:
She remembered to lock the door. X She remembers locking the door.
She remembered to see the Alps. X She remembers seeing the Alps.
She forgot to lock the door. X She forgot locking the door.
She forgot to see the Alps. X She forgot seeing the Alps.
REGRET
Podobné je to se slovesem regret. Když použiji infinitiv, nejprve lituji toho, co pak udělám. Naopak pokud použiji gerundium, lituji toho, co jsem před tím udělal:
I regret to tell you that you failed the test.
I regret lending him the money.
HATE
Podobně i zde, pokud použijete infinitiv, jste neradi, že musíte něco udělat. Gerundium naopak označuje obecnou nevoli:
I hate to tell you that you failed the test.
I hate making such stupid mistakes.
TRY
Se slovesem TRY je to trochu jinak. Pokud použijeme infinitiv, pokusíme se něco udělat. Nevíme, jestli se nám to podaří.
Pokud použijeme gerundium, pak víme, že se nám to podaří, ale jde nám o výsledek.
I'm trying to learn English.
Can you try to open the window? I think it's stuck.
The room was hot. I tried opening the window, but it didn't help.
LIKE
Rozdíl mezi použitím gerundia a infinitivu je pouze drobný:
I like going to the cinema.
They like working out.
He likes to go swimming in the morning.
She likes to buy a strong coffee before work.
Zde si můžeme pomoci tím, že pokud se bavíme obecně, použijeme gerundium. Naopak pokud se bavíme o konkrétnější situaci, použijeme infinitiv. Dokonce třeba ani nechceme říct, že je to naše oblíbená činnost, ale prostě to rádi děláme z nějakého důvodu.
Toto pravidlo však rozhodně není černobílé. Například v AmE se setkáte nejčastěji s infinitivem.
NEED
Za sloveso NEED dáváme běžně infinitiv:
You need to go there and tell him.
We need Chris to help us.
Pokud však říkáme, že něco potřebuje nějakou činnost, a někdo to musí udělat, použijeme gerundium:
The car needs washing.
MEAN
Sloveso MEAN má dva základní významy. Pokud vyjadřuje “znamenat” a zajímá nás výsledek, použijeme gerundium:
Do you really want to pass the test? It will mean studying very hard.
MEAN ale může znamenat také “zamýšlet, mít v úmyslu”. Pak použijeme infinitiv:
I didn't mean to hurt you.
STOP
Pozor na sloveso STOP. Je po něm pochopitelně gerundium (stejně jako po všech slovesech, která znamenají ukončení činnosti). Ale lze po něm použít také infinitiv účelu:
I stopped smoking. = Přestal jsem kouřit.
I stopped to smoke. = Zastavil jsem se, abych si zakouřil.
infinitiv vs. gerundium – obecná pomůcka
Pokud jste v situaci, kdy se máte rozhodnou jestli po daném slovese bude infinitiv nebo gerundium, a nemáte po ruce žádný seznam nebo jinou pomůcku, můžete se řídit následujícím:
Gerundium se často používá v případě, že činnost popisovaná druhým slovesem se odehrává před činností popisovanou prvním slovesem:
She denied stealing the money. = popírá něco, co udělala dříve
Infinitiv má opačné pravidlo: sloveso první se odehrává před slovesem druhým, časově jdou slovesa chronologicky po sobě:
She decided to steal the money. = nejprve se rozhodla a pak ukradla
Toto pravidlo však není zdaleka stoprocentní.
Slovesa HEAR a SEE
Slovesa smyslového vnímání HEAR a SEE mají svá specifika a nehodí se do žádné výše uvedené kategorie.
Lze po nich použít infinitiv bez TO nebo gerundium a i zde dochází k mírné změně ve významu, která souvisí s českou dokonavostí a nedokonavostí:
I saw him cross the street.
I saw him crossing the street.
He saw the tree fall down.
He saw the tree falling down.
I heard her knock on the door.
I heard her knocking on the door.
She heard her parents argue in their bedroom.
She heard he parents arguing in their bedroom.
Pokud použijete infinitiv (bez TO), vyjadřujete, že jste viděli nebo slyšeli celou akci. Naopak při použití gerundia vyjadřujete, že jste viděli či slyšeli pouze část. Nezaměřujete se na dokonaný děj.
Po těchto slovesech nelze použít infinitiv s TO.
Seznamy sloves
Jelikož již znáte problematiku infinitivů a gerundií, je na čase seznámit se s nejdůlěžitými slovesy z obou kategorií.
U sloves, která se pojí s infinitivem i gerundiem je poznámka:
hvězdička (*) = nedochází ke změně ve významu
křížek (+) = dochází ke změně ve významu, nebo použití
Slovesa, po kterých následuje infinitiv:
| afford |
convince |
intend* |
regret+ |
| advise* |
continue* |
learn |
remember+ |
| agree |
dare |
like+ |
remind |
| allow* |
decide |
long |
require |
| appear |
deserve |
love* |
seem |
| arrange |
enable |
manage |
start* |
| ask |
encourage |
mean+ |
struggle |
| attempt* |
expect |
need+ |
swear |
| (be) able |
fail |
offer |
teach |
| beg |
forbid |
order |
tell |
| begin* |
force |
permit |
threaten |
| care |
forget+ |
persuade |
trouble |
| choose |
happen |
plan |
try+ |
| cause |
hate+ |
prefer* |
urge |
| challenge |
help |
prepare |
volunteer |
| can't bear* |
hesitate |
pretend |
wait |
| choose |
hire |
propose* |
want |
| claim |
hope |
promise |
warn |
| consent |
instruct |
refuse |
wish |
Slovesa, po kterých následuje gerundium:
| admit |
deny |
involve |
recall |
| advise* |
detest |
keep |
recollect |
| allow* |
dislike |
like+ |
recommend |
| anticipate |
endure |
love* |
regret+ |
| appreciate |
enjoy |
mention |
remember+ |
| avoid |
escape |
mean+ |
resent |
| attempt* |
excuse |
mind |
resist |
| begin* |
fancy |
miss |
risk |
| can't bear* |
finish |
need+ |
start* |
| can't help |
forget+ |
permit* |
stop |
| consider |
forgive |
postpone |
suggest |
| contemplate |
hate+ |
practise |
try+ |
| continue* |
imagine |
prefer* |
understand |
| delay |
intend* |
propose* |
(be) worth |
Pozn.: Frázová slovesa v těchto seznamech nejsou obsažena, ale pochopitelně platí stejné pravidlo i pro ně, např:
He continued / carried on / went on speaking.
She postponed / put off leaving until tomorrow.
infinitiv a gerundium – zápor
Pokud chcete vyjádřit záporný infinitiv nebo gerundium, je anglická gramatika naštěstí jednoduchá: Před infinitiv nebo gerundium vložíte záporku NOT:
He pretended to know the answer.
He pretended not to hear.
I regret calling him.
I regret not calling him.
ZÁVĚR
Co napsat závěrem. Pokud jste dočetli až sem (a nepřeskakovali), tak vám jde jistě hlava kolem.
Zde platí to, co u každého gramatického jevu. Začít pomalu od začátku, protože naráz se to nedá vše zvládnout.
Obzvláště tato gramatika, protože se týká všech anglických sloves (samozřejmě tady nejsou napsána všechna slovesa, ale je tu již slušná slovní zásoba) a je zbytečné učit se slovní vzorec ke slovesu, které zatím moc neznám.
Ale pokud se budu učit nové sloveso, je ideální naučit se také rovnou jeho správné spojení s dalším slovesem. Určitě je dobré vědět základní spojení, která jsou zmíněna hned v úvodu. A pak, až se budete učit další nová slovesa a budete je používat, je dobré občas se mrknout na tuto gramatiku.
V budoucnosti máme v plánu se ke gramatice slovesných vzorců vracet ve formě krátkých článků, které se budou zaměřovat hlavně na ta slovesa, se kterými se pojí infinitiv i gerundium a mění se tak jejich význam.
As your 1st term score is not very satisfying, I want you to make your reputation better,
therefore REVISE everything that concerns:
NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, PRONOUNS
in ENGLISH FILE Pre-Intermediate and Intermediate, GRAMMAR BANK.
Writing section - page 119/A letter or email of complaint, ex. c, d
We did Vocabulary bank page 163, Grammar bank page 146.
1. GRAMMAR BANK page 147 / Learn grammar rules how to use gerunds and infinitives. Focus on COMMON VERBS which take the gerund/which take the infinitive
2. VOCABULARY BANK page 161, Learn vocabulary and articles about education in the UK and In the US
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_14.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_21.htm
| |
Verb Lists: Infinitives and Gerunds
|
| Principles of Composition |
|
Verbs Followed by an Infinitive
She agreed to speak before the game. |
agree
aim
appear
arrange
ask
attempt
be able
beg
begin
care
choose
condescend |
consent
continue
dare
decide
deserve
detest
dislike
expect
fail
forget
get
happen |
have
hesitate
hope
hurry
intend
leap
leave
like
long
love
mean
neglect |
offer
ought
plan
prefer
prepare
proceed
promise
propose
refuse
remember
say |
shoot
start
stop
strive
swear
threaten
try
use
wait
want
wish |
Verbs Followed by an Object and an Infinitive
Everyone expected her to win. |
advise
allow
ask
beg
bring
build
buy
challenge |
choose
command
dare
direct
encourage
expect
forbid
force |
have
hire
instruct
invite
lead
leave
let
like |
love
motivate
order
pay
permit
persuade
prepare
promise |
remind
require
send
teach
tell
urge
want
warn |
Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list above
and may be used without an object. |
Verbs Followed by a Gerund
They enjoyed working on the boat. |
admit
advise
appreciate
avoid
can't help
complete
consider |
delay
deny
detest
dislike
enjoy
escape
excuse |
finish
forbid
get through
have
imagine
mind
miss |
permit
postpone
practice
quit
recall
report
resent |
resist
resume
risk
spend (time)
suggest
tolerate
waste (time) |
Verbs Followed by a Preposition and a Gerund
We concentrated on doing well. |
admit to
approve of
argue about
believe in
care about
complain about
concentrate on
confess to |
depend on
disapprove of
discourage from
dream about
feel like
forget about
insist on
object to |
plan on
prevent (someone) from
refrain from
succeed in
talk about
think about
worry about |
Verb Patterns (slovesné vzorce)
Slovesné vzorce, ač to zní matematicky, nemají s matematikou nic společného a jedná se v podstatě o jev, kdy se nám ve větě objeví dvě slovesa za sebou.
Budu konkrétní:
I can ski. – sloveso v infinitivu bez TO
I want to ski. – sloveso v infinitivu s TO
I enjoy skiing. – sloveso v gerundiu (-ing)
I talked about skiing. – slovesná vazba s předložkou
Sečteno a podtrženo, s jinými tvary druhého slovesa ve větě se nemůžete v angličtině setkat. Problém je však v tom, kdy který tvar zvolit a pravidla tady bohužel jsou jen minimální. Proto nezbývá nic jiného, než se naučit každé sloveso a jeho “vzorec” samostatně.
Není třeba nikam spěchat. Mírně pokročilí studenti (a někdy i začátečníci) asi už znají všechny čtyři výše zmíněné příklady. Úmyslně jsem v úvodu zvolil slovesa základní, která patří do základní slovní zásoby.
S vyšší pokročilostí ovšem přibývají další a další slovesa, ale jelikož se s nimi nesetkáte tak často jako např. se slovesem WANT, nemusíte si být jisti, který tvar druhého zvolit. Pokročilejší studenti se pak vzorce musí jednoduše naučit / nadrtit / nabiflovat.
Slovesa následovaná infinitivem bez TO
V této kategorii je sloves naštěstí jen několik. Hlavně jde o modální slovesa, kde studenti většinou nechybují.
1) modální (způsobová) slovesa
základní = can, may, must
pokročilejší = could, might, will, would, shall, should
I can do it.
May I help you?
You must obey!
2) slovesa LET a MAKE
Další dvě specifická slovesa jsou LET a MAKE.
Let me open the door for you.
Don't make me laugh!
V trpném rodě se sloveso MAKE váže s inifitivem s TO:
I was made to do it.
3) sloveso HELP
Se slovesem HELP můžete použít infinitiv bez TO, ale také s TO:
He helped her open the door.
He helped her to open the door.
4) sloveso DARE
Poslední v této kategorii je sloveso DARE (opovážit se, troufnout si), které může být modální (způsobové) sloveso, a váže se tady s infinitivem bez TO. Pracujeme s ním pak jako s modálním slovesem.
zápor: DARE + NOT = DAREN'T
otázka: DARE YOU…?
Používá se však i jako běžné sloveso, se kterým pracujete jednoduše a váže se s infinitivem s TO, ale také bez TO.
zápor: DON'T DARE
otázka: DO YOU DARE…?
Jako modální sloveso (bez TO):
I dare not go. = I daren't go.
Dare you do it?
How dare you do it?
Jako běžné sloveso (s TO i bez TO):
I didn't dare (to) go.
Do you dare (to) do it?
Nobody dared (to) speak.
Slovíčko DARE patří také do kategorie sloves, po kterých je nejprve předmět a poté infinitiv (tato kategorie je zmíněna níže), a znamená pak “vyzvat někoho k něčemu”
I dare you to drink it!
Slovesa následovaná infinitivem s TO
Tato kategorie je společně s následující kategorií ‘gerundium’ nejobsáhlejší, a taky se pokročilejším studentům nejčastěji plete.
“Bude po slovese infinitiv nebo gerundium?” Nezbývá nic jiného, než se naučit jednotlivá slovesa.
Bohužel není vše černobílé a anglická gramatika je toho důkazem. Problematika INFINITIV vs. GERUNDIUM není jen o tom naučit se zpaměti všechna spojení. Jde to ještě dál: některá slovesa se mohou pojit s infinitivem NEBO s gerundiem a nedochází ke změně významu. Jsou tu však i taková slovesa, kde dochází ke změně ve významu. Více se dozvíte níže.
Ale nepředbíhejme. Následují příklady sloves, po kterých je infinitiv. (obsáhlejší seznam naleznete níže)
Slovesa v této kategorii se dají rozdělit na dvě základní skupiny:
1) slovesa, po kterých je přímo infinitiv
afford: I couldn't afford to buy the book.
agree: Susan agreed to help them.
appear: He appears to be tired.
decide: I have decided to leave on Friday.
hesitate: Don't hesitate to contact us.
hope: Jack hopes to arrive on Saturday.
offer : They offered to help us.
plan : I am planning to have a party.
refuse: I simply refuse to believe it.
want: I want to tell you the truth.
wish: She wishes to come with us.
2) slovesa, po kterých je nejprve předmět a pak infinitiv
ask: I asked Jim to help us.
expect: I expect you to be here on Monday.
hire: She hired a boy to mow the lawn.
instruct: He instructed them to be careful.
invite: Harry invited the Jacksons to come to his party.
lead: The article leads me to believe it's true.
order: The judge ordered me to pay a fine.
teach: My brother taught me to swim.
want: I want you to do it.
Určitě si všimnete, že některá slovesa jsou v obou kategoriích – může po nich být přímo infinitiv, nebo nejprve zájmeno a až pak infinitiv. Např:
I want to do it.
I want you to do it.
Slovesa a vazby následované gerundiem (-ing)
Další velice obsáhlá sekce jsou slovíčka následovaná gerundiem (sloveso zakončeno -ing). I tato kategorie má několik podsekcí, jelikož sem patří i určité vazby. Opět si uvedeme jen několik příkladů, podrobnější seznam najdete níže.
1) slovesa následovaná gerundiem (-ing)
admit: He admitted stealing the money.
avoid: He avoided answering my question.
deny: She denied committing the crime.
enjoy: We enjoyed visiting them.
fancy: I don't really fancy doing it.
imagine: Can you imagine living here?
keep: I keep hoping he will come.
miss: I miss being with my family.
postpone: Let's postpone leaving until tomorrow.
quit: He quit trying to solve the issue.
recall: I don't recall meeting him before.
recommend: I recommended calling her.
suggest: She suggested going to the cinema.
Pozor si dejte například na sloveso suggest:
She suggested going to the cinema.
She suggested that he go to the cinema.
Podobně se chovají například slovesa recommend, propose, request, insist atd. Tento pro mnohé zvlášní gramatický jev se jmenuje konjunktiv.
2) vazby se slovesem GO
Pokud jdeme nebo jedeme dělat nějakou činnost (většinou sport nebo hobby), používáme sloveso GO, po kterém je také vždy gerundium. Zde jsou příklady:
go bowling, go camping, go canoeing, go dancing, go fishing, go hiking, go hunting, go jogging, go running, go sailing, go shopping, go sightseeing, go skating, go skateboarding, go skiing, go swimming
I usually go swimming in summer.
I went shopping yesterday.
Po slovesu GO může být i infinitiv (s TO i bez TO), pokud se nejedná například o oblíbenou činnost, ale o konstatování, že jdete něco udělat:
I should go to see a doctor.
I should go see a doctor.
I should go and see a doctor.
POZOR!
Zde bych rád zmínil jednu typickou chybu.
Pokud chci říct Uvažuji, že pojedu lyžovat, dochází k zajímavému jevu:
jet lyžovat = go skiing (vazba se slovesem go, viz výše)
uvažovat = consider (sloveso, po kterém je vždy gerundium)
Celá tato věta je v přítomné čase průběhovém, proto:
I am considering going skiing.
Ano, budou tady tři slovesa s koncovkou -ING za sebou.
Jedná se o průběhový čas, proto I AM CONSIDERING.
Sloveso ‘consider’ se váže vždy s gerundiem, proto je GOING.
‘Jet lyžovat’ je ve vazbě GO SKIING.
Studenti se na konci věty většinou “vylekají” a řeknou si, že nemůže být ING 3× za sebou a udělají chybu jako třeba I am considering going to ski.
Tady jsou jasná pravidla a není důvod je porušovat, i když se vám zdá, že “to tak přece nemůže být”.
3) ustálená spojení následovaná gerundiem
Zde bych rád nakousl ještě jednu kategorii. Nejedná se o klasický slovesný vzorec, protože se tady nebudou za sebe klást dvě slovesa, ale jedná se přímo o vazby.
have a good time: We had a good time playing soccer.
have a hard time: We had a hard time finding the house.
have a difficult time: I will have a difficult time making up my mind.
have fun: We had fun playing football.
have trouble: We had trouble looking for our car.
have difficulty: We had difficulty filling in the form.
4) vazby sloves s předložkami (následované gerundiem)
Asi nebude novinkou, že po předložkách je vždy gerundium, ale problém je vybrat tu správnou předložku. Tady opět nezbývá nic jiného, než se tyto vazby naučit. Proto bez dlouhého vysvětlování následuje seznam těch nejužitečnějších:
ABOUT
argue about: We argued about going on holidays.
be excited about: I am excited about going on holiday.
be thrilled about: I was thrilled about going camping.
be worried about: I am worried about taking the exam.
ABOUT / OF
complain about / of: Susan complained about having a headache.
dream about / of: I dream about going to Hawaii.
speak about / of: He spoke about being concerned about his health.
talk about / of: Peter talked about being too busy.
think about / of: I was thinking about going on holiday.
FOR
apologize for: David apologized for being late.
be responsible for: Who is responsible for taking care of invoices?
be thankful for: I was thankful for not having to go there.
blame (sb) for: Don't blame me for breaking it.
forgive (sb) for: Please forgive me for doing that.
have an excuse for: He always has an excuse for not coming.
have a reason for: Paul has a good reason for doing it.
thank (sb) for: Thank you for coming.
FROM
discourage (sb) from: My girlfriend discourages me from racing.
keep (sb) from: She kept me from finishing the task.
prevent (sb) from: He prevented her from going there.
prohibit (sb) from: Paul prohibited us from smoking.
stop (sb) from: He stopped the child from running into the street.
IN
believe in: I believe in doing good deeds.
be interested in: I am interested in skiing.
participate in: He participated in searching.
succeed in: She succeeded in setting up her own business.
OF
approve of: My parents don't approve of me coming home so late.
be accused of: She was accused of stealing the present.
be capable of: He isn't capable of telling lies.
be guilty of: The jury found him guilty of stealing the bike.
be tired of: I am tired of having to work all day.
instead of: *Instead of* watching TV, I decided to go to the cinema.
take advantage of: You should take advantage of living here.
take care of: She took care of welcoming the guest.
ON
concentrate on: I concentrated on doing it perfectly.
depend on: Our health depends on taking time to recharge our batteries.
insist on: I insist on knowing the whole truth!
plan on : I'm planning on attending the meeting.
rely on: I really relied on being accepted to that school.
TO
admit to: She admitted to going there secretly.
be accustomed to : I am accustomed to working late hours.
be committed to : We are committed to providing the best medical care.
be opposed to: She was opposed to him doing such things.
be used to: I am used to getting up early.
confess to: She confessed to having an affair.
look forward to: I look forward to seeing you.
object to: I object to him saying such things.
POZOR!
Poslední část je pro studenty nejsložitější. Má to jeden velmi prostý důvod – předložka TO. Problém je v tom, že tady je TO předložka, a proto je po ní gerundium (to going). Jenže slovíčko TO může být taky částice infinitivu (to go).
A v tom je právě kámen úrazu. Studenti mají tak silně zakořeněnou právě infinitivní vazbu TO GO, že jim spojení TO GOING přijde jednoduše špatně.
Výsledkem je pak klasická chyba např. v dopisech: I look forward to see you.
Sloveso těšit se (look forward) je vždy následováno předložkou TO.
těšit se NA něco = look forward TO something
I look forward to seeing you.
Několikrát se mi stalo, že mi studenti jednoduše nevěřili, protože již tolikrát viděli v dopisech např. “I look forward to see you” nebo “I look forward to hear from you.”
Pokud se vám to taky nezdá, tak přemýšlejte se mnou:
go swimming = jít plavat
I talked about going swimming.
Tady vás spojení about going asi nepřekvapí. ABOUT je přece předložka.
I am looking forward to going swimming.
Tady je spojení to going a i zde je předložka, tentokrát TO.
Stejné by to bylo napřiklad v další klasické chybě
I am used to get up early.
jsem zvyklý NA něco = I am used TO something
TO je tady předložka, proto bude správně věta:
I am used to getting up early.
INFINITIV vs. GERUNDIUM
Když se na tento gramatický jev podíváte jako na celek, tak zjístíte, že první krátká kategorie sloves, po kterých je infinitiv bez TO, je docela jasná – jde skoro výhradně o modální (způsobová) slovesa. Další kategorie jsou vazby. Co je ovšem největší problém i pro pokročilé studenty, to je INFINITIV vs. GERUNDIUM.
Jak jsme si ukázali výše, někdy je po slovesech infinitiv, někdy gerundium. V odstavcích výše bylo jen několik příkladových sloves, podrobnější seznam najdete v závěru článku.
Další problém však je, že některá slovesa se mohou pojit jak s infinitivem, tak s gerundiem. A někdy dochází ke změně ve významu a někdy ne.
1) infinitiv vs. gerundium – bez změny významu
Jako první uvedu slovesa z té jedodušší kategorie – ať po nich dáte infinitiv nebo gerundium, význam zůstává stejný:
advise: She advised me to wait. / She advised waiting.
can't bear: I can't bear to wait / waiting in long lines.
begin: It began to rain / raining.
continue: He continued to speak / speaking.
prefer: Janet prefers to walk home. / I prefer walking to running.
start: It started to rain / raining.
V zásadě však platí pravidlo, že pokud je již ve větě jedno gerundium, a my si můžeme vybrat, volíme infinitiv: It's starting raining It's starting to rain
Pokud ve větě gerundium není, výběr je na nás:
It started raining = It started to rain
Malý problém nastává u sloves ADVISE a PREFER – jejich význam se však nemění:
ADVISE
Uvedeme-li ve větě předmět, musíme použít infinitiv:
He advised me to buy a Volvo.
Bez předmětu je pak nutno použít gerundium:
He advised buying a Volvo.
V trpném rodě je však i bez zájmena infinitiv:
I was advised to buy a Volvo.
PREFER
Samotné sloveso PREFER se váže většinou s infinitivem:
I prefer to stay home.
Se slovesem PREFER se však váže předložka TO, jako např. ve větě:
I prefer tea to coffee.
Proto musíme použít u dalších sloves gerundium:
I prefer staying home to going to the concert.
S infinitivem je to taky možné, ale věta bude složitější:
I'd prefer to stay home rather than to go to the concert.
Ve zkrácené podobě pak:
I'd prefer to stay home than go to the concert.
2) infinitiv vs. gerunidum – změna ve významu
Některá slovesa se vážou s infinitivem i gerundiem, ale dochází ke změně ve významu:
REMEMBER + FORGET
U těchto dvou sloves platí stejné pravidlo, proto si je vysvětlíme společně.
She always remembers to lock the door.
He often forgets to lock the door.
Ve větách výše chronologicky nejprve přichází děj slovesa remember / forget a pak činnost:
nejprve si vzpomene, pak zamkne
nejprve zapomene, aby pak zamkl
I remember seeing the Alps for the first time.
I'll never forget seeing the Alps.
V těchto větách naopak nejprve přišla nějaká činnost, na kterou budu vzpomínat nebo zapomenu:
nejprve jsme viděl Alpy, a to si pak budu pamatovat
nejprve jsem viděl Alpy, a na to pak nikdy nezapomenu
Pro lepší pochopení se nyní pojďme věty se zamykáním a Alpami přehodit:
She remembered to lock the door. X She remembers locking the door.
She remembered to see the Alps. X She remembers seeing the Alps.
She forgot to lock the door. X She forgot locking the door.
She forgot to see the Alps. X She forgot seeing the Alps.
REGRET
Podobné je to se slovesem regret. Když použiji infinitiv, nejprve lituji toho, co pak udělám. Naopak pokud použiji gerundium, lituji toho, co jsem před tím udělal:
I regret to tell you that you failed the test.
I regret lending him the money.
HATE
Podobně i zde, pokud použijete infinitiv, jste neradi, že musíte něco udělat. Gerundium naopak označuje obecnou nevoli:
I hate to tell you that you failed the test.
I hate making such stupid mistakes.
TRY
Se slovesem TRY je to trochu jinak. Pokud použijeme infinitiv, pokusíme se něco udělat. Nevíme, jestli se nám to podaří.
Pokud použijeme gerundium, pak víme, že se nám to podaří, ale jde nám o výsledek.
I'm trying to learn English.
Can you try to open the window? I think it's stuck.
The room was hot. I tried opening the window, but it didn't help.
LIKE
Rozdíl mezi použitím gerundia a infinitivu je pouze drobný:
I like going to the cinema.
They like working out.
He likes to go swimming in the morning.
She likes to buy a strong coffee before work.
Zde si můžeme pomoci tím, že pokud se bavíme obecně, použijeme gerundium. Naopak pokud se bavíme o konkrétnější situaci, použijeme infinitiv. Dokonce třeba ani nechceme říct, že je to naše oblíbená činnost, ale prostě to rádi děláme z nějakého důvodu.
Toto pravidlo však rozhodně není černobílé. Například v AmE se setkáte nejčastěji s infinitivem.
NEED
Za sloveso NEED dáváme běžně infinitiv:
You need to go there and tell him.
We need Chris to help us.
Pokud však říkáme, že něco potřebuje nějakou činnost, a někdo to musí udělat, použijeme gerundium:
The car needs washing.
MEAN
Sloveso MEAN má dva základní významy. Pokud vyjadřuje “znamenat” a zajímá nás výsledek, použijeme gerundium:
Do you really want to pass the test? It will mean studying very hard.
MEAN ale může znamenat také “zamýšlet, mít v úmyslu”. Pak použijeme infinitiv:
I didn't mean to hurt you.
STOP
Pozor na sloveso STOP. Je po něm pochopitelně gerundium (stejně jako po všech slovesech, která znamenají ukončení činnosti). Ale lze po něm použít také infinitiv účelu:
I stopped smoking. = Přestal jsem kouřit.
I stopped to smoke. = Zastavil jsem se, abych si zakouřil.
infinitiv vs. gerundium – obecná pomůcka
Pokud jste v situaci, kdy se máte rozhodnou jestli po daném slovese bude infinitiv nebo gerundium, a nemáte po ruce žádný seznam nebo jinou pomůcku, můžete se řídit následujícím:
Gerundium se často používá v případě, že činnost popisovaná druhým slovesem se odehrává před činností popisovanou prvním slovesem:
She denied stealing the money. = popírá něco, co udělala dříve
Infinitiv má opačné pravidlo: sloveso první se odehrává před slovesem druhým, časově jdou slovesa chronologicky po sobě:
She decided to steal the money. = nejprve se rozhodla a pak ukradla
Toto pravidlo však není zdaleka stoprocentní.
Slovesa HEAR a SEE
Slovesa smyslového vnímání HEAR a SEE mají svá specifika a nehodí se do žádné výše uvedené kategorie.
Lze po nich použít infinitiv bez TO nebo gerundium a i zde dochází k mírné změně ve významu, která souvisí s českou dokonavostí a nedokonavostí:
I saw him cross the street.
I saw him crossing the street.
He saw the tree fall down.
He saw the tree falling down.
I heard her knock on the door.
I heard her knocking on the door.
She heard her parents argue in their bedroom.
She heard he parents arguing in their bedroom.
Pokud použijete infinitiv (bez TO), vyjadřujete, že jste viděli nebo slyšeli celou akci. Naopak při použití gerundia vyjadřujete, že jste viděli či slyšeli pouze část. Nezaměřujete se na dokonaný děj.
Po těchto slovesech nelze použít infinitiv s TO.
Seznamy sloves
Jelikož již znáte problematiku infinitivů a gerundií, je na čase seznámit se s nejdůlěžitými slovesy z obou kategorií.
U sloves, která se pojí s infinitivem i gerundiem je poznámka:
hvězdička (*) = nedochází ke změně ve významu
křížek (+) = dochází ke změně ve významu, nebo použití
Slovesa, po kterých následuje infinitiv:
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afford
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convince
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intend*
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regret+
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advise*
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continue*
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learn
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remember+
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agree
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dare
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like+
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remind
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allow*
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decide
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long
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require
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appear
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deserve
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love*
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seem
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arrange
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enable
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manage
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start*
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ask
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encourage
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mean+
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struggle
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attempt*
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expect
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need+
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swear
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(be) able
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fail
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offer
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teach
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beg
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forbid
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order
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tell
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begin*
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force
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permit
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threaten
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care
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forget+
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persuade
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trouble
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choose
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happen
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plan
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try+
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cause
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hate+
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prefer*
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urge
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challenge
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help
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prepare
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volunteer
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can't bear*
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hesitate
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pretend
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wait
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choose
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hire
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propose*
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want
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claim
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hope
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promise
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warn
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consent
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instruct
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refuse
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wish
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Slovesa, po kterých následuje gerundium:
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admit
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deny
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involve
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recall
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advise*
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detest
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keep
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recollect
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allow*
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dislike
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like+
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recommend
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anticipate
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endure
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love*
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regret+
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appreciate
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enjoy
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mention
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remember+
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avoid
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escape
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mean+
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resent
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attempt*
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excuse
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mind
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resist
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begin*
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fancy
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miss
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risk
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can't bear*
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finish
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need+
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start*
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can't help
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forget+
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permit*
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stop
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consider
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forgive
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postpone
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suggest
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contemplate
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hate+
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practise
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try+
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continue*
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imagine
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prefer*
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understand
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delay
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intend*
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propose*
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(be) worth
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Pozn.: Frázová slovesa v těchto seznamech nejsou obsažena, ale pochopitelně platí stejné pravidlo i pro ně, např:
He continued / carried on / went on speaking.
She postponed / put off leaving until tomorrow.
infinitiv a gerundium – zápor
Pokud chcete vyjádřit záporný infinitiv nebo gerundium, je anglická gramatika naštěstí jednoduchá: Před infinitiv nebo gerundium vložíte záporku NOT:
He pretended to know the answer.
He pretended not to hear.
I regret calling him.
I regret not calling him.
ZÁVĚR
Co napsat závěrem. Pokud jste dočetli až sem (a nepřeskakovali), tak vám jde jistě hlava kolem.
Zde platí to, co u každého gramatického jevu. Začít pomalu od začátku, protože naráz se to nedá vše zvládnout.
Obzvláště tato gramatika, protože se týká všech anglických sloves (samozřejmě tady nejsou napsána všechna slovesa, ale je tu již slušná slovní zásoba) a je zbytečné učit se slovní vzorec ke slovesu, které zatím moc neznám.
Ale pokud se budu učit nové sloveso, je ideální naučit se také rovnou jeho správné spojení s dalším slovesem. Určitě je dobré vědět základní spojení, která jsou zmíněna hned v úvodu. A pak, až se budete učit další nová slovesa a budete je používat, je dobré občas se mrknout na tuto gramatiku.
V budoucnosti máme v plánu se ke gramatice slovesných vzorců vracet ve formě krátkých článků, které se budou zaměřovat hlavně na ta slovesa, se kterými se pojí infinitiv i gerundium a mění se tak jejich význam.
Získané znalosti si můžete procvičit v testech:
Verb patterns 1:
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2008083006-test-verb-patterns-1
Verb patterns 2:
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2008110205-test-verb-patterns-2
Verb patterns 3:
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2011102302-test-verb-patterns-3
Gerundium vs. Infinitiv 1:
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2006071601-gerundium-vs-infinitiv-cviceni-1
Gerundium vs. Infinitív 2:
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2006071602-gerundium-vs-infinitiv-cviceni-2
Gerundium vs. Infinitív 3:
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2006071702-gerundium-vs-infinitiv-cviceni-3
HOMEWORK
PASSIVE
PRACTISE THE PASSIVE
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises/active_passive/sentences_gaps.htm
SPIELBERG + interview with Dagmara (Listening 3. 36,37) + talking about any director (2 minutes) and any film (3-minutes) + vocabulary from the students'book and listenings
Printing + English File Grammar bank page 142/ex. b
· Printing was another Chinese invention in the ninth century AD. The first known book not written by hand was printed in what is now China, from engraved wooden blocks.
· Because Chinese writing was in the form of a very large number of pictographs, moveable type was of little advantage. However, such cast type appeared in Korea before developing quite independently in Europe.
Movable type printing
Movable type is the system of printing and typography using movable pieces of metal type, made by casting from matrices . Copper movable type printing originated in China at the beginning of twelfth century. Around 1230, Koreans invented a metal type movable printing using bronze.
Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg introduced what is regarded as the first modern movable type system in Europe). Gutenberg was the first to create his type pieces from lead, tin, and antimony – the same components still used today. (a combination of the 3 metals= a cast/ a metal alloy)
A steam-powered press invented by the German Friedrich Koenig followed in 1810.
An American, Richard Hoe, invented the faster rotary press in 1846. The rotary printing press uses a cylinder (roller) to print on continuous rolls of paper or another material.
Lithography (stará technika hĺbkotlače) was long used to print pictures for books.
From this method came the idea for offset printing, and the first offset press appeared in 1904.
In offset printing the method of "relief" printing from cast metal type, traditional since Gutenberg, is replaced by a smooth photographic plate. (The ink image is transferred from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the surface to be printed/printing surface.)
In 1983 the offset plate progressed to a format involving the laser-beam transference of stored digital information. Gradually, printing world-wide became a digital and computerized process, and mechanical printing began to disappear.
CONVENTIONAL PRINTING TECHNOLOGY
All printing processes differ two kinds of areas:
· Image or printing areas
· Non-image or non-printing areas
THE FOUR MAIN CONVENTIONAL PRINTING TECHNOLOGIES (IN PRINCIPLE):
1. Planographics (tlač z plochy) in which the printing and non-printing areas are on the same plane surface (rovná ploch) and the difference between them is made chemically (oil and water) or by physical properties (fine mesh screen – sitko), the examples are: offset and screen printing (sieťotlač).
2. Relief /re´li:f/ (tlač z výšky), in which the printing areas are on a plane surface and the non printing areas are below the surface, examples: flexography (moderná technológia tlače z výšky) and letterpress (stará technológia kníhtlače). Currently, most books and newspapers are printed using the technique of offset.
3. Intaglio /inta:liou/ (tlač z hĺbky), in which the non-printing areas are on a plane surface and the printing area are etched (vyleptané) or engraved (vyryté) below the surface, examples: steel die engraving (technika vyrytia), gravure /graevju:r/ (gravírovanie).
4. Porous /po:res/ (porézna tlač), in which the printing areas are on fine mesh screens (sitko) through which ink can penetrate (prenikať), and the non-printing areas are blocked so that the flow of ink could not penetrate those areas, examples: screen printing.
OFFSET PRESS
Offset printing is a widely used printing technique where the inked image is transferred (or "offset") from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface.
When used in combination with the lithographic process, which is based on the repulsion (odpudzovanie) of oil and water, the offset technique employs a flat (planographic) image carrier on which the image to be printed obtains ink from ink rollers, while the non-printing area attracts a film of water, keeping the non-printing areas ink-free.
OTHER PRINTING TECHNIQUES:
·flexography (flexografia) used for packaging, labels, newspapers
·hot wax dye transfer (prenos farieb pomocou horúceho vosku)
·inkjet is used to print a small number of books or packaging and also to print on high quality papers simulating offset printing, to floor tiles
·laser printing (Toner Printing) mainly used in offices (bills, bank documents). Laser printing is commonly used in home laser printers
·pad printing (tampónová tlač) is used to print on three-dimensional surfaces (e.g. caps, pens, wallets, umbrellas...)
·rotogravure /routograevju:r / mainly used for magazines and packaging
·screen-printing from T-shirts to floor tiles
·Intaglio used mainly for high value documents such as currencies, high quality catalogues
·Thermal printing popular in the 1990s for Fax printing, is used today for airline baggage tags, railway tickets...
GLOSSARY
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antimony
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antimón
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flexography
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flexografia
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intaglio
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tlač z hĺbky
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lead
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olovo
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letterpress
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tlač z výšky, kníhlač
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offset lithography
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ofsetová hĺbkotlač
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property
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vlastnosť
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screen printing
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sieťotlač
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Thermal printing
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tepelná tlač
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tin
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cín
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printing unit-black
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tlačový agregát - čierna
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printing unit-cyan
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tlačový agregát-azúrová
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printing unit- magenta
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tlačový agregát-purpurová
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printing unit- yellow
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tlačový agregát-žltá
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| plane surface |
rovná plocha |
| rubber blanket |
gumový poťah |
| cast/mould |
odlievať |
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LEARN THE TOPIC 22.the_book_-_a_person_s_friend.docx
Johannes Gutenberg (1398-1468)
Johannes Guttenber invented the printing press - the most important invention in modern times.
Without boks and computers we wouldn't be able to learn, to pass on information, or to share scientific discoveries. Prior to (before) Gutenberg invented the printing press, making a book was a hard process. It wasn't that hard to write a letter to one person by hand, but to create thousands of books for many people to read was nearly impossible. Without the printing press we wouldn't have had the Scientific Revolution or the Rennaisance. Our world would be very different.
He was born in Mainz, Germany around the year 1398. He was the son of a goldsmith. We do not know much about his childhood. He moved a few times around Germany, but that's all we know for sure.
Inventions
Gutenberg took some existing technologies and some of his own inventions to invent the printing press in the year 1450. One key idea he came up with was moveable type. Rather than use wooden blocks to press ink onto paper, Gutenberg used moveable metal pieces to quickly create pages. He made innovations all the way through the printing process enabling pages to be printed faster. His presses could print thousands of pages per day vs. 40-50 with the old method. This was a dramatic improvement an allowed books to be acquired by the middle class and spread knowledge and education like never before. The invention of the printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe and soon thousands of books were being printed using printing presses. He used a special metal combination that consisted of lead, antimony and tin.
First printed books
It is thought that the first printed item using the press was a German poem. Other prints included Latin Grammars and indulgences for the Catholic Church. His real fame came from producing the Gutenberg Bible. It was the first time a Bible was mass-produced and available for anyone outside the church. Bibles were rare and could take up to a year for a priest to transcribe. Gutenberg printed around 200 of these in a relatively short time.
The original Bible was sold for 30 florins. This was a lot of money back then for a commoner, but much, much cheaper than a hand-written version.
There are about 21 complete copies of Gutenberg Bible existing today. One copy is worth about 30 million dollars.
Matters of a text book block.
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acknowledgements
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contents
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illustrations
|
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appendix
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cover
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index
|
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bibliography
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footnote
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jacket
|
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blurb
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foreword
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preface
|
|
chapter
|
glossary
|
title
|
4 A _________________________ is a list of the books and articles that were used in the preparation of a book. It usually appears at the end.
5 The ________________________ are the photographs or drawings that are found in a book.
6 The __________________________ at the beginning or end of a book are where the author thanks everyone who has helped him or her, plus who supplied photographs, etc.
7 A ___________________________ is an introduction at the beginning of a book, which explains what the book is about or why it was written.
8 A ___________________________ is one of the parts that a book is divided into. It is sometimes given a number or a title.
9 An __________________________ to a book is extra information that is placed after the end of the main text.
10 A ___________________________ is a preface in which someone who knows the writer and his or her work says something about them.
11 An___________________________ is an alphabetical list that is sometimes printed at the back of a book which has the names, subjects, etc. Mentioned in the book and the pages where they can be found.
12 The __________________________ is a list at the beginning of a book saying what it contains.
13 The __________________________ is an alphabetical list of the special or technical words used in a book, with explanations of their meanings.
14 A ____________________________is a note at the bottom of a page in a book which gives the reader more information about something that is mentioned on the page.
15 The __________________________ is a short description by the publisher of the contents of a book, printed on its paper cover or in advertisements.
BOOKBINDING
Bookbinding is the process of physically assembling a book from a number of folded or unfolded sheets of paper or other material. It usually involves attaching a book cover to the resulting text-block. There are hardback books and paperback books.
PARTS OF A CASE BOUND BOOK
GLOSSARY
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back lining/headcap
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chrbátnik
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sheet paper/flat paper
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čistý hárok
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bookmaking finishing process
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dokončovacie spracovanie, knihárske
|
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foil proof/covering/coaling
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fóliový poťah
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head-band/bead
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kapitálik
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book joint/grove
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knižná drážka
|
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flag book mark
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knižná záložka
|
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signature
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knižná zložka
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book cardboard covers
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knižné dosky z kartónu
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book hard plastic covers
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knižné dosky z tuhých plastov
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book cords/raised bands
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knižné väzy
|
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body of book
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knižný blok
|
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book sheet
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knižný hárok
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book cover gluing
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knižný polep
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leather proof/covering/coating
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kožený poťah
|
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adhesive binding/perfect binding
|
lepená väzba
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gluing
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lepenie
|
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glued book back
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lepenie knižného chrbta
|
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soft binding
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mäkka väzba
|
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edging of the body/trimming
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orezanie knižného bloku
|
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edge
|
oriezka/orezanie
|
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paper proof/covering/coating
|
papierový poťah
|
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cloth book back
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platený knižný chrbát
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cloth proof/covering/coating
|
platený obťah
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half-hard binding
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polotvrdá väzba
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printed endpaper
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potlačená predsádka
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book jacket
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prebal
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front book board/cover
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predná knižná doska
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fore edge
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predná oriezka/predný okraj knihy
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endpaper
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predsádka
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industrial bookbinding
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priemyslové väzby
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signature
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signatúra
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stitched soft binding
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šitá mäkka väzba
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stitching/sewing
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šitie
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saddle stitching/sewing by wire staples
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šitie drôtenými skobkami na striešku, brožovanie
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folding
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skladanie
|
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spiral/coil/plastic binding
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špirálová väzba
|
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tail edge
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spodná oriezka/spodný okraj knihy
|
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snap-out
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súbor listov lepených v lište
|
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symmetrical/asymmetrical fold positions
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symetrická/nesymetrická pozície lomov
|
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hard cover binding/ cased binding
|
tvrdá väzba
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thread-stitched binding
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tvrdá väzba šitá niťou
|
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flyleaf
|
vakát
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top edge
|
vrchná oriezka
|
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crop/cropping
|
výsek, bigovanie
|
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back book board/cover
|
zadná knižná doska
|
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rounded back
|
zaoblený knižný chrbát
|
PARTS OF A BOOK
What is a book's FRONT MATTER? Front matter is the information that appears up front and first in a book. The front matter contains the nuts and bolts of the book’s publication—information like title, author, publisher, ISBN and Library Congress data. The front matter pages generally aren’t visibly numbered; when they are, the numbers appear as Roman numerals.
Here are the typical parts of a book's front matter:
Half title, sometimes called bastard title — is just the title of the book (you can think of it as a kind of half the title page) Frontispice — is the piece of artwork on the left (“verso”) side of the page opposite the title page on the right (“recto”) side. Title page – this is a page which contains the title of the book, the author (or authors) and the publisher. Copyright page — includes:
the declaration of copyright (that is, who owns the copyright, generally the authors)
- other types of credits, such as illustrators, editorial staff, indexer, etc., and sometimes notes from the publishers
- copyright acknowledgments — for books that contain reprinted material that requires permissions, such as excerpts, song lyrics
- edition number — this number represents the number of the edition and of the printing. Some books will specifically note “First Edition”; others don’t declare that they are first editions, and instead is represent their printings with a number. In those cases, a first edition would look like:
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
- A second edition would be noted as: 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data – which includes information such as title, authors, ISBN, Library of Congress number, subject matter, year of publication.
Dedication — where the author honors an individual or individuals by declaring that the labor of the book is “To” [name or names] Acknowledgements — the author’s thanks to those who contributed time and resources towards the effort of writing the book. Table of Contents — outlines what is in each chapter of the book. Foreword — is a “set up” for the book, typically written by someone other than the author. Preface or Introduction — is a “set up” for the book’s contents, generally by the author.
ISBN
ISBN – International Standard Book Number precisely identifies a book, there should be no two books with the same number. The following publishing of the same book has a new number ISBN.
The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a unique numeric commercial book identifier based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code created by Gordon Foster, Emeritus Professor of Statistics at Trinity College, Dublin, for the booksellers and stationers.
The ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 by DAVID WHITAKER (named as the “Father of the ISBN) and EMERY KOLTAY (who later became director of the U.S.ISBN agency, Bowker).
The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 210.
Since 1st January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with "Bookland" European Article Number EAN-13s.
An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a book. For example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007.
An International Standard Book Number consists of 4 parts (if it is a 10 digit ISBN) or 5 parts (for a 13 digit ISBN):
the only difference between a bar code and an ISBN is that the ISBN is hyphenated
parts of ISBN: 5 parts:
1. first three digits 978 or 979 - within EAN code/bar code these tell us it is a book, currently this can only be either 978 or 979. It is always 3 digits in length
2. 3 - language group or country, it depends, English books are assigned either 0 or 1. ( Registration group element – this identifies the particular country, geographical region, or language area participating in the ISBN system. This element may be between 1 and 5 digits in length)
3. 8473 - identifier of a publisher/publishing house
4. 1838 - identifier of a title (this identifies the particular edition and format of a specific title. This may be up to 6 digits in length)An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a book. For example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN.
5. 5 - so called check digit
ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency. In Slovakia it is the National Agency ISBN in Martin.
What is a book's BODY MATTER?
Body matter is the core contents of the book— often divided into segments:
The body matter is numbered with Arabic numerals beginning with the number “1” on the first page of the first chapter.
Art program — anything that isn’t text (photographs, illustrations, tables, graphs, etc.) is considered to be part of the book’s art program. The art program might be integrated into each page or appear all together within a separate “signature” somewhere in the book.
In non-fiction literature there there could be:
- marginálie – marginalia
- poznámky pod čiarou – footnotes
What is a book's END MATTER? End matter is the materials at the back of the book, generally optional.
- Glossary - a list of technical or special words, especially those in a particular text, explaining their meanings
- Bibliography – most often seen in non-fiction like biography or in academic books,
a bibliography lists the reference sources used in researching the book. Index – the index is placed at the end of the book, and lists all the major references in the book (such as major topics, mentions of key people in the book, etc.) and their specific, corresponding page numbers.
- Publishing imprint: publishing and printing data: author(s), title, publisher, edition, printing house where a book was printed, circulation, number of publisher’s sheets, number of author’s sheets, production number
- Errata (sg. erratum) – publishers issue an erratum for a production error
Expected language in essays:
a wide variety of tenses, adverbs, adjectives and linking devices
Advantages and disadvantages – Pros and cons
On the plus side, - The advantage is that
For example, - For instance,
What is more, - Moreover, Another point is that
All in all, - All things considered,
For one thing, - One disadvantage is that
particularly - especially
Last of all, - finally
despite – in spite of
In conclusion, - to sum up, All things considered
I think that – in my opinion
a) One major advantade/disadvantage of, one point of view in favour of/against
b) In the first place, first of all, to start with, secondly, thirdly, finally, last but not least
c) What is more, in addition to this, apart from this, not to mention the fact that
d) On the one hand, on the other hand, in spite of, however, even though, although
e) For example, for instance, such as, like, especially
f) To sum up, all in all, in conclusion, on the whole, taking everything in account, all things considered
g) It is argued that, some argue/say/agree, opponents if this view insist, contrary to popular opinion/what most people believe, as opposed to the ideas above, on the contrary
h) As far as ... is concerned, regarding, as for, with regard to
i) In fact, as a matter of fact, in practice, the truth is, actually
j) Because, owing to/due to the fact that, for this/that reason
k) Thus, therefore, as a result, consequently, so
l) Obviously, clearly, needless to say, in particular
m) When expressing opinions: In my opinion, in my view, as I see it, the way I see it, I strongly believe, it seems/appears to me
LINKING WORDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
1 Sequencing actions/events
first, when, before, as soon as, then, after, finally
2 Giving reasons
In order to, so that
3 Giving conditions
Unless, if, even if, when
4 Contrasting
however, but, despite, although, even though
5 Giving more information
Where, wherever
6 Explaining clauses
because
Vzťažné vety (relative clauses)
Vzťažné vety v angličtine (relative clauses) – defining relative clauses / non-defining relative clauses. Vzťažné zámena (WHICH / WHO / WHOSE / THAT), vynechávanie vzťažných zámen, písanie čiarok.
Vzťažné vety sú vety, ktoré bližšie určujú a popisujú podstatné meno v hlavnej vete, na ktoré sa vzťahujú.
Delíme ich na dve skupiny:
- REŠTRIKTÍVNE VZŤAŽNÉ VETY = určujúce vzťažné vety (defining relative clauses)
- NEREŠTRIKTÍVNE VZŤAŽNÉ VETY = neurčujúce vzťažné vety (non-defining relative clauses)
Vzťažné vety ďalej môžu byť:
- PODMETOVÉ = vzťažné zámeno nahradzuje podmet
- PREDMETOVÉ = vzťažné zámeno nahradzuje predmet
Pozrime sa spoločne na nasledujúcu vetu:
- The teacher who teaches Maths is popular in the school. – Učiteľ, ktorý …
Vzťažnú vetu máme vyššie zvýraznenú. Podáva nám bližšie informácie o tom, ktorého učiteľa myslíme.
REŠTRIKTÍVNE VZŤAŽNÉ VETY (určujúce)
Reštriktívne vzťažné vety obsahujú dôležitú informáciu, ktorá nám pomáha presnejšie určiť, prípadne zaradiť podstatné meno, na ktoré sa vzťahuje. Pre zachovanie významu celej vety ju nemôžeme vynechať. Informáciu, ktorú obsahujú je teda nevyhnutná pre zmysel hlavnej vety. Vo vete ju pretoneoddeľujeme čiarkou.
- Dievča, ktoré sa pri nehode zranilo je teraz v nemocnici.
- The girl who was injured in the accident is now in hospital.
Vzťažná veta “who was injured in the accident” nám bližšie určuje podstatné meno “dievča”. Na výber máme množstvo dievča, no vďaka tejto vzťažnej vete, ktorá nám bližšie charakterizuje, ktoré dievča máme na mysli nie je problém s jej identifikáciou. Bez tejto vedľajšej vety by celá veta stratila obsah, ktorý je pre pochopenie kontextu kľúčový.
- I don’t like stories which have unhappy endings.
- The man who lives opposite has just died.
- The book which I am reading is a novel.
NEREŠTRIKTÍVNE VZŤAŽNÉ VETY (neurčujúce)
Nereštriktívne vzťažné vety neobsahujú tak dôležitú informáciu, bez ktorej by bolo problém určiť to, o kom / čom hovoríme. Takáto informácia uvedená vo vete je iba doplnková – niečo naviac. Z vety túto informáciu môžeme pokojne vynechať. Ak ju vo vete umiestníme, urobíme tak za použitia čiarok, ktoré túto vzťažnú vetu oddelia. V týchto vetách navyše vzťažné zámeno nevynechávame.
- Jeho auto, ktoré bolo veľmi staré sa pokazilo po iba piatich minútach.
- His car, which was very old, broke down after just five minutes
V tejto vete nám vzťažná veta “, which was very old,” dáva iba dodatočnú informáciu o danom vozidle. Ak by sme ju z vety vynechali, veta by stále nestratila zmysel. Daný človek má len jedno auto, všetci vedia, o ktoré auto sa jedná. Táto veta nám dotvorí len akýsi “vetný doplnok”.
- Mr Jones, who teaches Science, is very popular in the school.
Vzťažné vety podmetové alebo predmetové
Vzťažné vety môžu byť podmetové alebo predmetové na základe toho, či vzťažné zámeno nahradzuje podmet alebo predmet vedľajšej vety.
V reštriktívnych (určujúcich) podmetových vzťažných vetách musí byť vzťažné zámeno.
WHICH / THAT je podmetom – preto z vety nemôže byť vynechané
V reštriktívnych (určujúcich) predmetových vzťažných vetách môžeme vzťažné zámeno vynechať. To je práve vtedy, keď je vo vete podstatné meno alebo podmetové zámeno medzi vzťažným zámenom a slovesom. V našom prípade to je podmetové zámeno (I) medzi vzťažných zámenom (WHICH / THAT) a slovesom (READ)
WHICH / THAT je predmetom – preto z vety môže byť vynechané
- The car (which / that) I bought is very old. – WHICH tu nemá funkciu podmetu vedľajšej vety. Ak ho vynecháme, veta bude mať stále svoj podmet.
- The car I bought is very old.
- A camel is an animal which / that lives in hot countries. - WHICH tu má funkciu podmetu vedľajšej vety. Ak ho vynechávame, táto veta zostane bez podmetu.
A camel is an animal lives in hot countries.
V nereštriktívnych (neurčujúcich) vzťažných vetách zámeno nemôžeme nikdy vynechať.
Vzťažné zámena
Vedľajšie vzťažné vety uvádzame pomocou:
- a) vzťažných zámen: who, whom, whose, which, that
- b) vzťažných prísloviek: when, where, why
| |
Vzťažné zámeno nahradzuje podmet vedľajšej vety (nemôžeme z vety vynechať) |
Vzťažné zámeno nahradzuje predmet vedľajšej vety (môžeme z vety vynechať) |
Vlastníctvo (nemôžeme zámeno z vety vynechať) |
| |
WHO / THAT |
WHO / WHOM / THAT |
WHOSE |
| používame pre životné podstatné mená (hl. pre ľudí) |
The man who / thatlives opposite has just died. |
She is the woman (who / that / whom) I met at the office. |
That’s the lady whosehusband has died. |
| |
WHICH / THAT |
WHICH / THAT |
WHOSE / OF WHICH |
| používame pre neživotné podstatné mená (hl. veci) a zvieratá |
A camel is an animalwhich / that lives in hot countries. |
The car (which / that) I bought is very old. |
That’s the golf clubwhose interior / the interior of which is being reconstructed. |
WHO / WHICH
WHO / WHICH prekladáme ako “ktorý”. Patria medzi najpoužívanejšie vzťažné zámená.
WHO používame pre životné podstatné mená (osoby)
WHICH používame pre neživotné podstatné mená a zvieratá
- The man over there, who is called Bill Gates, started Microsoft. - nereštriktívna veta, v ktorej používame WHO pre životné podstatné meno
- Mr Jones, who teaches Science, is very popular in the school. - opäť nereštriktívna veta, v ktorej používame WHO pre osobu (človeka) Mr Jonsa
- The car which I bought is very old. - reštriktívna veta, v ktorej použijeme WHICH pre neživotné podstatné meno – auto
WHICH s predložkou
Pri WHICH môžeme predložku umiestniť pred toto vzťažné zámeno alebo až na koniec vzťažnej vety. Rozdiel je v miere formálnosti. Porovnajte!
|
formálnejšie
|
menej formálne
|
| the chair on which you’re sitting |
the chair which you’re sitting on |
THAT namiesto WHO / WHICH / WHOM?
V reštriktívnych vzťažných vetách, či už podmetových alebo predmetových môžeme nahradiť WHO / WHOM / WHICH zámenom THAT.
- Did you see the programme about the man who started Microsoft?
- Did you see the programme about the man that started Microsoft?
V nereštriktívnych vzťažných vetách (po čiarke) použiť zámeno THAT namiesto WHO / WHOM / WHICH nemôžeme.
- My father, who is seventy-five years old now, was a teacher.
My father, that is seventy-five years old now, was a teacher.
Kedy preferujeme THAT pred WHICH?
THAT používame navyše po treťom stupni prídavných mien a po výrazoch ALL / SOMETHING / NOTHING / ANYTHING / NONE / MANY / FEW zvyčajnejšie ako ako WHICH.
Ako by ste preložili vetu “To je niečo, čomu nerozumiem.“?
This is something what I don’t understand. - POZOR si dávajte na nesprávne používanie WHAT. Jedná sa o vzťažnú vetu a WHAT vzťažným zámenom nie je! Nemôžeme ho preto v týchto vetách použiť.- This is something that I don’t understand.
Ďalšie pravidlo hovorí, že pred THAT predložku nikdy nepoužívame!
WHAT nie je vzťažné zámeno!
Ako som vyššie spomínal, WHAT nie je vzťažné zámeno! Nemôžeme ho používať vo vzťažných vetách i keď nás slovenský preklad vety k tomu zvádza.
- I want to know what happened to you. – Chcem vedieť, čo sa ti stalo. (= jedná sa o predmetnú vetu, v ktorej sa WHAT môže nachádzať)
- This is something that makes me happy. – To je niečo, čo ma teší. (= jedná sa o vzťažnú vetu, ktorá nám rozvíja podstatné meno /something/)
WHO vs. WHOM
WHOM namiesto WHO používame hlavne vo formálnom štýle alebo v písomnom prejave, ak sa vzťahuje na osobu, ktorá je predmetom slovesa. Je to oveľa bežnejšie v písanom jazyku ako hovorovom.
- The woman whom we met was my teacher.
- The woman who we met was my teacher.
Ďalším rozdielom je použitie predložky, ak ju veta obsahuje. Ak je vo vete pri WHO predložka,umiestňujeme ju až na koniec vzťažnej vety a nie hneď pred WHO.
- Of all my friends, she’s the one who I’d like to spend my vacation with.
Of all my friends, she’s the one with who I’d like to spend my vacation.
Naopak, pri WHOM stojí predložka, ak ju veta obsahuje, pred týmto vzťažným zámenom.
- There were only a few students to whom the young lady spoke.
Porovnajte!
|
formálnejšie
|
menej formálne
|
| There were only a few students to whom the young lady spoke. |
There were only a few students who the young lady spoke to. |
WHOSE
Zámeno WHOSE je privlastňovacie vzťažné zámeno. Používame ho pre životné, tak i neživotné podstatné mená.
- That’s the golf club whose interior is being reconstructed.
- That’s the boy whose bicycle has been stolen. (= ktorého bicykel …) – privlastňujeme
Vo formálnejšej angličtine pre neživotné podstatné mená používame väzbu OF WHICH. WHOSE stojí pred privlastňovanou vecou, no väzba OF WHICH stojí až za privlastňovanou vecou.
- That’s the golf club the interior of which is being reconstructed.
WHOSE s predložkou
Pri WHOSE môžeme predložku umiestniť pred toto vzťažné zámeno alebo až na koniec vzťažnej vety. Rozdiel je v miere formálnosti. Porovnajte!
|
formálnejšie
|
menej formálne
|
| This is the woman with whose daughter I worked. |
This is the woman whose daughter I worked with. |
Vzťažné príslovky
Tieto vzťažné vety nám rozvíjajú podstatné meno, ktoré sa nachádza pred nimi.
| ČAS |
WHEN |
The day when I first saw you … |
| MIESTO |
WHERE |
The country where my mother was born is … |
| PRÍČINA |
WHY |
That’s the reason why it happened. |
WHERE
WHERE môžeme nahradiť pomocou WHICH / THAT + predložka a v takom prípade môžeme WHICH / THAT navyše úplne vynechať.
- The car where he was killed has been found.
- The car which / that he was killed in has been found.
- The car he was killed in has been found.
WHEN
WHEN používame po podstatných menách vzťahujúcich sa k času (napr. time, day, year apod.). Rovnako ho môžeme nahradiť zámenom THAT alebo ho úplne vynechať.
- That was the day when she got married.
- That was the day that she got married.
- That was the day she got married.
WHY
Pomocou WHY uvádzame príčinu, najmä po slove “reason“. Rovnako ho môžeme nahradiť THAT alebovynechať.
- The reason why he went to the theatre was that he …
- The reason that he went to the theatre was that he …
- The reason he went to the theatre was that he …
Čiarky, čiarky, čiarky…
Vzťažné vety určujúce v angličtine čiarkami neodeľujeme.
Vzťažné vety neurčujúce je potrebné oddeliť čiarkami. Intonačne je po čiarke krátka pauza.
Čiarky nám teda menia význam vety:
- His dog which is black is very old. – Má viac psov, vedľajšia veta nám presne určuje, o ktorého presne sa jedná. Je to teda reštriktívna vzťažná veta, ktorá do vety dodáva veľmi podstatnú informáciu.
- His dog, which is black, is very old. – Má len toho jedného psa, vedľajšia veta nám len dáva navyše informáciu o farbe psa. Ak by ju veta neobsahovala, aj tak by sme vedeli, o ktorého psa sa jedná.
Predložky a ešte raz predložky…
Zvyčajne pred vzťažné zámeno predložku neumiestňujeme. Všimnite si rozdiel!
- The trip on which I went was amazing. (formálne – málo používané)
- The trip which I went on was amazing. (bežné)
- The trip I went on was amazing. (najbežnejšie)
Practise your grammar:
"Whose" is a Possessive Pronoun
"Whose" is a possessive pronoun like "his," "her" and "our." We use "whose" to find out which person something belongs to.
Examples:
· Whose camera is this?
· Whose dog is barking outside?
· Whose cell phone keeps ringing?
"Who," "Whom" and "Whose" in Indirect Questions
The sentence below contains an example of an indirect question:
· I don't know whom he invited.
Such sentences usually start with a phrase such as: "I am not sure" or "He doesn't know" or "We don't care." Just ignore the first part of the sentence and look at the indirect question when deciding whether to use "who," "whom" or "whose." Ask yourself if the indirect question requires a subject, object, or possessive form.
Examples:
· He doesn't know who the boss of the company is. subject of the indirect question
· I don't care whom you invite. object of the indirect question
· She isn't sure whose car that is. "Whose" shows possession of car.
"Who," "Whom" and "Whose" in Adjective Clauses
The sentence below contains an example of an adjective clause:
· I know the man who won the contest.
Adjective clauses are used to describe a noun in the main sentence. In the example above, the adjective clause tells us about "the man." Just ignore the main sentence and look at the adjective clause when deciding whether to use "who," "whom" or "whose." Ask yourself if the adjective clause requires a subject, object, or possessive form.
Examples:
· We knew the actress who starred in the movie. subject of adjective clause
· They hired the man whom we interviewed last week. object of adjective clause
· She knew the family whose house we bought. "Whose" shows possession of house.
"Whom" Less Common
The form "whom" is becoming less and less common in English. Many native English speakers think "whom" sounds outdated or strange. This trend is particularly common in the United States. Especially when combined with prepositions, most people prefer to use "who" as the object pronoun. To most native English speakers, the examples below sound quite natural.
Examples:
· Who did you come to the party with?
· I don't know who he gave the book to.
· That is the woman who I was talking to.
· Who did you get that from?
· Do you have any idea who he sold his car to?
· That is the person who I got the information from.
EXERCISES AND RELATED TOPICS:
· Who, Whom, Whose Exercise 1
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises/pronouns/relative_pronouns2.htm
LEARN AND PRACTISE GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises/structures/gerund_infinitive_verbs.htm
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises/structures/gerund_infinitive.htm
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises/structures/gerund_infinitive2.htm
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises/structures/gerund_prepositions4.htm
http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerunds_infinitives_30.htm
LEARN AND PRACTISE ADJECTIVE / VERB+ PREPOSITION
Predložkové väzby
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2011090304-pridavna-jmena-s-predlozkami
http://www.helpforenglish.cz/article/2011090703-slovesa-s-predlozkami
adjective + preposition
Niektoré prídavné mená viažu na seba predložku. Väčšinou za predložkou nasleduje fráza s podstatným menom alebo zámeno. Niekedy môže nasledovať –ing forma.
Neexistuje pravidlo, podľa ktorého priraďujeme predložky k prídavným menám. Učíme sa ich naspamäť.
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adjective + of somebody to do something (od niekoho pre niečo)
|
|
nice of
kind of
good of
generous of
polite of
stupid of
silly of
|
milé
láskavé
dobré
štedré
slušné
hlúpe
pochabé
|
It was very kind of you to help me.
It is stupid of me to go out without a coat in such cold weather.
|
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adjective + to somebody (na niekoho)
|
|
nice to
kind to
good to
generous to
polite to
rude to
friendly to
cruel to
|
milý
láskavý
dobrý
štedrý
slušný
drzý
priateľský
krutý
|
They have always been nice to me.
Why were you so unfriendly to Lucy?
|
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adjective + of
|
|
afraid of*
frightened of*
terrified of*
scared of*
|
bojaci sa
vystrašený
vydesený
majúci strach
|
„Are you afraid of spiders?“ „Yes, I´mterrified of them.“
|
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fond of
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majúci rád
|
I am fond of cooking.
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proud of
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hrdý
|
I´m proud of my son.
|
|
ashamed of
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hanbiaci sa
|
He´s a fool. I´m ashamed of him.
|
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jealous of
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žiarlivý
|
Why are you always so jealous of other people?
|
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envious of
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závistlivý
|
He is very envious of his brother.
|
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suspicious of
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nedôverčivý
|
He didn´t trust me. He was suspicious of my intentions.
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critical of
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kritický
|
They were critical of Government´s new law.
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aware of
conscious of
|
byť si vedomý
|
„Did you know he was married?“ „No, I wasn´taware of that.“
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full of
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plný
|
The letter was full of mistakes.
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typical of
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typické
|
He´s late again. It´s typical of him to keep everybody waiting.
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tired of
sick of
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byť unavený
chorý
|
Let´s go, I´m tired of waiting.
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sure of/about
|
byť si istý
|
I think she´s arriving this evening, but I´m notsure of/about that.
|
*synonymá
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adjective + with/about/at/by
|
|
angry with*
annoyed with*
furious with*
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byť nahnevaný
|
with somebody for doing something(pokiaľ sme nahnevaní na niekoho kvôli niečomu)
Are you annoyed with me for being late?
Pokiaľ sme nahnevaní na niečo používame predložku about
It´s stupid to get angry about things that don´t matter.
|
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excited about
worried about
upset about
nervous about
happy about
|
vzrušený
majúci obavu
nahnevaný
nevózny
šťastný
|
about a situation – z nejakej situácie
Are you excited about going away next week?
Linda is upset about not being invited.
|
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delighted with*
pleased with*
satisfied with
happy with
disappointed with
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byť potešený
byť spokojný
byť šťastný
byť sklamaný
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with something you receive, or the result of something (z niečoho čo ste dostali alebo z výsledku niečoho)
I was delighted with the present you gave me.
Were you happy with your exam results?
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fed up with
bored with
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mať plné zuby
|
I don´t enjoy my job any more. I´m fed up with it.
I´m bored with it.
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crowded with
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preplnený
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The streets were crowded with tourists.
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impressed with/by
|
zaujatý
|
I´m very impressed with/by her English.
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surprised at/by
shocked at/by
amazed at/by
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prekvapený
šokovaný
ohromený
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Everybody was shocked at/by the news.
I hope you weren´t surprised at/by what I said.
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*synonymá
|
sorry + about/for (pociťujúci ľútosť)
|
|
sorry about
|
nad situáciou alebo niečím, čo sa stalo
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I´m sorry about the mess.
We´re all sorry about Julie losing her job.
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sorry about/for
|
nad niečím, čo si urobil
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Alex is very sorry about/for what he said.
I´m sorry about/for shouting at you yesterday.
v tomto prípade môžeme predložku vynechať
I´m sorry I shouted at you yesterday.
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feel/be sorry for
|
pociťovať ľútosť nad niekým kto je v zlej situácii
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I feel sorry for Matt. He´s had a lot of bad luck.
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|
adjective + at/to/from/in/on/for
|
|
good at
bad at
brilliant at
better at
hopeless at
|
dobrý v
zlý v
brilantný v
lepší v
zúfalý v
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I´m not very good at repairing things.
She´s hopeless at maths.
|
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married to
engaged to
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vydatá/ženatý
zasnúbená/ý
|
Linda is married to an American. but Linda ismarried with three children. (she has three children)
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similar to
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podobný
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Your writing is similar to mine.
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different from/to
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odlišný
|
The film was different from/to what I´d expected.
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interested in
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majúci záujem
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Are you interested in art?
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involved in
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zúčastňujúci sa
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Some of the students are involved in the exchange programme.
|
|
keen on
|
dychtivý, nadšený
|
We stayed at home because Chris wasn´t verykeen on going out.
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|
dependent on
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závislý
|
I don´t want to be dependent on anybody.but independent of
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|
famous for
|
slávny
|
The Italian city of Florence is famous for its art treasures.
|
|
responsible for
|
zodpovedný
|
Who was responsible for all that noise last night?
|
|
prepared for
ready for
|
pripravený
|
Are you prepared for writing a test
|
slovesné väzby
Niektoré slovesá majú svoje vlastné predložky, s ktorými sa používajú. Neexistuje pevné pravidlo, podľa ktorého by sme tieto predložky priraďovali. Musíme sa ich učiť naspamäť.
Tu sú najbežnejšie používané slovesá s príslušnými predložkami:
ask (somebody) for - požiadať niekoho o niečo
A man stopped me and asked me for money.
(Muž ma zastavil a požiadal o peniaze.)
belong to - patriť
Does this book belong to you?
(Patrí ti táto kniha?)
happen to - stať sa niekomu/niečomu
I can´t find my pen. What happened to it?
(Nemôžem nájsť moje pero. Čo sa s ním stalo?)
listen to - počúvať
Listen to this music. It´s beautiful.
(Počúvaj túto hudbu. Je krásna.)
speak/talk to (somebody) about (something) - hovoriť niekomu o niečom
Did you talk to Paul about the problem?
(Hovoril si s Paulom o probléme?)
on the phone - na telefóne
Can I speak to Chris, please?
(Môžem hovoriť s Chrisom, prosím?)
thank (somebody) for - ďakovať niekomu za
Thank you very much for your help.
(Ďakujem ti pekne za tvoju pomoc.)
wait for - čakať na
Don´t go yet. Wait for me.
(Nechoď ešte. Čakaj na mňa.)
write to (somebody) - písať niekomu
I never get letters. Nobody writes to me.
(Nikdy nedostávam listy. Nikto mi nepíše.)
depend on - závisieť na
Do you like eating in restaurants?
(Jedávaš rád v reštauráciách?)
Sometimes. It depends on the restaurant.
(Niekedy. Závisí to od reštaurácie.)
Niekedy môžeme predložku on vynechať a to vtedy, keď používame zámeno what/where/how/....
Do you want to come out with us?
(Chceš ísť s nami von?)
It depends where you´re going./ It depends on where you´re going.
(To záleží, kam idete.)
Slovosled za opytovacím zámenom where/what/how/... musí byť ako v oznamovacej vete (podmet + prísudok), pretože táto veta nie je otázka.
So slovesom look sa viaže viac predložiek, ktoré potom menia jeho význam.
look at - pozerať na
She is looking at her watch.
(Pozerá na hodinky.)
look for - hľadať
He´s lost his key. He´s looking for it.
(Stratil kľúč. Hľadá ho.)
look after - starať sa (o niekoho)
When Barbara is at work, her friend looks after her children.
(Keď je Barbara v práci, jej priateľ sa stará o jej deti.)
PRACTISE ARTICLES
http://englishpage.com/articles/index.htm
WRITING section page 119/ Write a letter of complaint about something you bought online.
Follow the layout and language.
Chýbajúci si doplnia:
SB 76/77 Rules how to make a complaint
Grammar Bank 146/preštudovať Nepriamu reč a urobiť cvičenia
WB 50/2 GRAMMAR ex. a, b
REVISION
REPORTED/INDIRECT SPEECH
Backshift
You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in Simple Past (e. g. He said). This is called backshift. Example:
He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.
|
Direct Speech
|
Reported Speech
|
|
Simple Present
|
Simple Past
|
|
Present Progressive
|
Past Progressive
|
|
Simple Past
|
Past Perfect Simple
|
|
Present Perfect Simple
|
|
Past Perfect Simple
|
|
Past Progressive
|
Past Perfect Progressive
|
|
Present Perfect Progressive
|
|
Past Perfect Progressive
|
|
Future I (going to)
|
was / were going to
|
|
Future I (will)
|
Conditional I (would)
|
|
Conditional I (would)
|
The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn’t, ought to, used to do not normally change.
Example:
He said, “She might be right.” – He said that she might be right.
In the following table, you will find ways of transforming place and time expressions into reported speech.
|
Direct Speech
|
Reported Speech
|
|
today
|
that day
|
|
now
|
then
|
|
yesterday
|
the day before
|
|
… days ago
|
… days before
|
|
last week
|
the week before
|
|
next year
|
the following year
|
|
tomorrow
|
the next day / the following day
|
|
here
|
there
|
|
this
|
that
|
|
these
|
those
|
REPORTED SPEECH/Indirect speech
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/reported.htm
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech
http://www.usingenglish.com/quizzes/102.html
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech/exercises?09
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech/exercises?04
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech/exercises?06
REPORTING VERBS
Reporting verbs with that-clauses
We use verbs such as MENTION or SAY as reporting verbs before that-clauses with reported speech.
“I’ve been ill.” She mentioned that she‘d been ill.
After reporting verbs such as TELL and ASSURE, we must include an object (the hearer) before a that-clause.
“She has gone.” He told me that she had gone.
“You will be paid.” I assured them that they would be paid.
Reporting verbs with infinitives and gerunds (verb + ing)
1 After reporting verbs such as INVITE and ENCOURAGE, we include an object before infinitive.
“You can go with me.” She invited us to go with her.
“You shouldn’t quit.” She encouraged me not to quit.
Other verbs used like this include:
ASK, EXPECT, ORDER, REMIND, WARN, URGE
2 After a reporting verb such as OFFER, we don’t include an object before an infinitive.
“I’ll help you later.” He offered to help us later.
Other verbs used like this include:
APPLY, DECIDE, DECLINE, DEMAND, REFUSE
3 After a reporting verb such as PROMISE,
we can use an infinitive or a that-clause.
“ I’ll fix it.” He promised to fix it. Or He promised that he would fix it.
Other verbs used like this include:
AGREE, CLAIM, HOPE, PROPOSE, THREATEN, VOW
4 After a reporting verb such as DENY and SUGGEST,
we use a gerund or a that-clause.
“I didn’t take it.” She denied taking it. Or She denied that she had taken it.
“You should leave.” He suggested leaving. Or He suggested that they should leave.
Other verbs used like this include:
ADMIT, MENTION, PROPOSE, RECOMMEND, REPORT
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/reported.htm
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/reported-speech
http://www.usingenglish.com/quizzes/102.html
Active / Passive Overview
| |
Active
|
Passive
|
|
Simple Present
|
Once a week, Tom cleans the house.
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Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom.
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Present Continuous
|
Right now, Sarah is writing the letter.
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Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah.
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Simple Past
|
Sam repaired the car.
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The car was repaired by Sam.
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Past Continuous
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The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store.
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The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store.
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Present Perfect
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Many tourists have visited that castle.
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That castle has been visited by many tourists.
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Present Perfect Continuous
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Recently, John has been doing the work.
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Recently, the work has been being done by John.
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Past Perfect
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George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license.
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Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license.
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Past Perfect Continuous
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Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris.
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The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.
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|
Simple Future
will
|
Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM.
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The work will be finished by 5:00 PM.
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|
Simple Future
be going to
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Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.
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A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight.
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|
Future Continuous
will
|
At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes.
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At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John.
|
|
Future Continuous
be going to
|
At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes.
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At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John.
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|
Future Perfect
will
|
They will have completed the project before the deadline.
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The project will have been completed before the deadline.
|
|
Future Perfect
be going to
|
They are going to have completed the project before the deadline.
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The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.
|
|
Future Perfect Continuous
will
|
The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.
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The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
|
|
Future Perfect Continuous
be going to
|
The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.
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The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
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Used to
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Jerry used to pay the bills.
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The bills used to be paid by Jerry.
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|
Would Always
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My mother would always make the pies.
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The pies would always be made by my mother.
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|
Future in the Past
Would
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I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM.
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I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.
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|
Future in the Past
Was Going to
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I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.
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I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.
|
English Tenses – Examples
| |
Explanation
|
Past
|
Present
|
Future
|
| |
Simple Past
|
Simple Present
|
Future I Simple
|
|
|
action that takes place once, never or several times
|
He played football every Tuesday.
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He plays football every Tuesday.
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He will / is going to play football every Tuesday.
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|
actions that happen one after another
|
He played football and then he went home.
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He plays football and then he goes home.
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He will play football and then he will go home.
|
|
state
|
He loved football.
|
He loves football.
|
He will love football.
|
| |
Past Progressive
|
Present Progressive
|
Future I Progressive
|
|
|
action going on at that moment
|
He was playing football.
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He is playing football.
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He will be playing football.
|
|
actions taking place at the same time
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He was playing football and she was watching.
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He is playing football and she is watching.
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He will be playing football and she will be watching.
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| |
Past Perfect Simple
|
Present Perfect Simple
|
Future II Simple
|
|
|
action taking place before a certain moment in time; emphasises the result
|
He had won five matches until that day.
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He has won five matches so far.
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He will have won five matches by then.
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| |
Past Perfect Progressive
|
Present Perfect Progressive
|
Future II Progressive
|
|
|
action taking place before a certain moment in time (and beyond), emphasises the duration
|
He had been playing football for ten years.
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He has been playing football for ten years.
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He will have been playing football for ten years.
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Členy v angličtině
Každá gramatika má svoji funkci. Členy nejsou výjimkou. Slouží především proto, aby se lidé mezi sebou lépe domluvili.
Členy jsou krátká gramatická slůvka, která nějak určují či specifikují význam podstatného jména. Existuje člen určitý (definite article), člen neurčitý (indefinite article) a člen nulový (zero article).
Určitý člen zajistí, že člověk, který mluví, a člověk, který poslouchá, budou mít v hlavě stejnou představu o významu podstatného jména. Jedná se totiž o nějaké konkrétní a určité podstatné jméno. Když v konverzaci řeknu the car, ten, s kým mluvím, si představí stejné auto jako já (tedy např. to, o kterém jsme se před chvilkou bavili, nebo to, které právě před námi zastavilo). Kdyby nevěděl, o kterém mluvím, a já stejně použil the car, bude na mě asi nechápavě zírat a komunikace neproběhne.
Neurčitý člen vyjadřuje, že se nejedná o žádnou konkrétní věc, a tedy není potřeba, aby představa v mysli mluvčího byla totožná s představou v mysli posluchače. Použiji-li tedy v rozhovoru slovo a car, posluchač si může představit libovolné auto, nebo si počká, až ho nějak blíže specifikuji. Zastaví-li tedy před námi auto, a já použiju slovo a car, je jasné, že nemluvím o tomto konkrétním, ale o nějakém jiném.
V některých případech používáme tzv. nulový člen, což znamená, že před podstatným jménem člen není. Toto 'vynechání' členu má však svůj účel a také nějak určuje podstatné jméno. O tom ale více později.
Použijeme-li nesprávný člen, věta by mohla být nesrozumitelná, nebo by ji mohl dotyčný špatně pochopit. Rozdíl je např. vidět na následujících dvou větách:
Where's the kitchen?
- It's the door on your right. - Víme, kde je kuchyň, a člověka navádíme přímo do kuchyně - ty dveře vpravo.
- It's a door on your right. - Zde nevíme kde kuchyň je, pouze říkáme, že jsou to jedny z dveří vpravo, ale dotyčný to bude muset vyzkoušet a zjistit sám - jsou to nějaké dveře vpravo.
Pomůckou, kterou studenti často používají, je, že když si v češtině podstatné jméno ve větě můžeme říct s ukazovacím zájmenem TEN (např. to auto), bude v angličtině určitý člen. Pokud se spíše před podstatné jméno hodí přídavné jméno NĚJAKÝ (např. nějaké auto), člen bude v angličtině neurčitý. Neplatí to stoprocentně, ale většinou to také funguje. Zdůvodňovat si ale cokoliv českým překladem nedoporučuji.
Pojďme se nyní podívat na základní případy, kdy se členy používají.
Člen neurčitý
Nejprve se zaměříme na neurčité členy. Mají dva tvary, a to:
a / an
První variantu používáme před vyslovovanou souhláskou (a dog, a house, a union - zde se sice píše samohláska, ale čte se souhláska J). Druhá varianta se používá před vyslovovanou samohláskou (an engineer, an actor, an hour - zde se sice píše souhláska, ale vyslovuje se samohláska A). Neurčitý člen používáme především v těchto třech případech:
1) Nová informace
Klasická učebnicová poučka: neurčitý člen používáme, když mluvíme o nějaké věci poprvé. Ono ani tak nejde o to, pokolikáté o ní mluvíme, ale zda se jedná o novou informaci či nikoliv. Pokud náš posluchač ještě o nějaké věci neví, neslyšel o ní, tehdy použijeme tento člen. On si totiž ještě nemůže v hlavě vytvořit stejnou představu jako my, protože je to pro něho něco nového.
I bought a new car. - Koupil jsem si nové auto - je to pro něho nová informace, ještě neví jaké jsem si koupil.
She lives in a house in the city center. - také nová informace, o tomto domu posluchač ještě neslyšel.
2) Co je kdo zač
Neurčitý člen se používá i v případě, kdy říkáme, co je kdo nebo co zač. Nejčastěji to bývá např. u zaměstnání:
He's a teacher. - Je učitel - říkáme, co je zač, jaké má zaměstnání.
I want to be an astronaut. - Chci být kosmonautem. - říkám, čím chci být, jaké zaměstnání chci mít.
Není to však omezeno pouze na zaměstnání:
Jem is a boy. - Říkám, že Jem je kluk, tedy co je zač.
Oscar is a dog. - Oscar je pes - co je zač.
Burton is a brand of snowboards. - Burton je značka snowboardů.
Často se používá i u podstatných jmen s přívlastkem:
It's a beautiful morning. - co je to ráno zač, jaké je to ráno
She's a very smart girl. - Je to moc chytrá holka - neurčitý člen zde bude, i kdyby se o té dívce již mnohokrát mluvilo - říkáme, co ta holka je zač, tedy neurčitý člen.
Toto použití neurčitého členu se objevuje především za slovesem být a za dalšími tzv. linking verbs (become apod.)
3) Množství, frekvence, apod.
Neurčitý člen mívá také funkci čísla jedna:
He bought an apple and two bananas. - jedno jablko a dva banány
Dále se neurčitý člen objevuje v různých údajích určujících množství, frekvenci, čas apod.:
a few - několik
a little, a bit - trochu
a couple of - pár
a lot of - spousta
half an hour - půl hodiny
twice a week - dvakrát týdně
kilometres an hour - kilometrů za hodinu
POZOR:
Neurčitý člen nikdy (téměř) nemůže stát před podstatným jménem v množném čísle (a cars) nebo před abstraktním či nepočitatelným podstatným jménem (a love, a snow, a money). U těch lze člen nahradit přídavným jménem SOME (some cars, some snow, some money), nebo lze člen vynechat úplně - použít nulový člen.
Určitý člen
Určitý člen má také dvě varianty, ty se ale odlišují pouze ve výslovnosti:
THE / 
/ a / 
/
První varianta, podobně jako tomu bylo u neurčitého členu, se používá před vyslovovanou souhláskou (the dog, the house, the union) a druhá před vyslovovanou samohláskou (the engineer, the actor, the hour). Tento člen se používá v následujících případech:
1) Známá věc
Učebnice říkají, že určitý člen použijeme před podstatným jménem, o kterém se již mluvilo. Opět podotknu, že nejde ani tak moc o mluvení, jako spíše o to, zda člověk, se kterým mluvíme, již o této věci ví.
He lives in a house in the city centre and the house is very old. - ten dům, který byl zmíněn v první části věty
The car which I bought yesterday is excellent. - to auto, které jsem včera koupil - Člověk, se kterým mluvíme, musí ale vědět, že jsem si včera koupil auto, jinak bych takovou větu říci nemohl.
2) Jediný exemplář
Dále používáme určitý člen s podstatnými jmény, která existují pouze v jediném exempláři. Např. slunce, měsíc, prezident USA apod.
The sun is shining. - Slunce je jenom jedno.
Nemusí to však být omezeno pouze na věci, které jsou na světě jen jednou. Mohou to být slova, která se v jediném exempláři objevují např. v jednom státě, nebo dokonce v jedné domácnosti, apod.
Can you put it in the fridge? - Lednička je doma jen jedna, člověk bude přesně vědět, kam to má dát - prostě do lednice.
I think I left it in the car. - Auto má člověk také většinou jen jedno, a když řekne že to nechal v autě, vlastně říká, kde přesně to nechal.
Where's John? -- He's in the bathroom. - Záchod či koupelnu máme také asi jen jednu, tedy když řeknu, že je na záchodě, asi by každý věděl, kde ho má hledat.
3) Státy, pohoří, řeky
Určitý člen používáme u některých názvů států (ne u všech!), a to u těch, které jsou v množném čísle, nebo se skládají z více slov (nejčastěji vlastní a obecné podstatné jméno - např. Česká republika)
the Czech Republic, the Soviet Union, the United States of America, the Netherlands (to je v množném čísle) atd.
Dále jsou to pohoří:
the Himalayas, the Andes, the Sierra Nevada
Nebo také řeky, pouště, atd. Více o členech u zeměpisných názvů se dočtete v jiném článku.
Nulový člen
Nulový člen se nepíše, nemá žádný tvar. Přesto je důležité vědět, kdy ho je nutné použít. Pojem 'vynechat člen' není přesný. Členy se vynechávají např. v nadpisech, v novinových titulcích apod. Nulový člen je však něco jiného. Používá se následovně:
1) Mluvíme pouze obecně
Mluvíme-li např. obecně o vodě, o žirafách, o autech apod, použijeme právě tento nulový člen. Je to u podstatných jmen nepočitatelných a u jmen počitatelných v množném čísle.
Water is wet. - Voda je mokrá, mluvím o vodě obecně. (ale: THE water is cold today - dnes je voda studená - myslím tím asi vodu v jezeře či v bazénu.)
Giraffes have long necks. - Mluvím obecně o žirafách i o krcích, nejsou to žádné konkrétní žirafy, ani krky (Ale: THE giraffes are beautiful - myslím tím asi tyto žirafy ve výběhu přede mnou.)
2) Ustálené předložkové vazby
Nulový člen používáme i u některých předložkových vazeb.
by car, by bus, by train
at home, at school, at work, to work, to school
in bed, in hospital, in prison, in church - zde spíše říkáme, co tam člověk dělá, než jen místo, kde je - spí, je v nemocnici (zraněný), je v base (jako vězeň), je v kostele a modlí se
Podobných vazeb samozřejmě existuje více.
3) Státy, města, ulice
Názvy států v jednotném čísle, které se skládají pouze z jednoho slova, jsou s nulovým členem:
Germany, Italy, France, Spain atd.
Dále jsou to města, obce, apod.
London, New York, Prague, Fifth Avenue, Mulholland Drive
Zde však existuje spousta výjimek. Více o určitých členech u místopisných názvů viz link na konci článku.
POZOR NA ČASTOU CHYBU:
Před podstatným jménem počitatelným v jednotném čísle nějaký člen či jiný způsob určení (např. přivlastňovací zájmeno) být prostě musí. Slovo AUTO (car) tedy ve větě nikdy nebude bez členu či bez přivlastňovacího zájmena.
Jak se členy naučit?
Buďte v kontaktu s angličtinou co nejvíce, čtěte, poslouchejte, mluvte, konverzujte. Po čase snad zjistíte, že členy používáte bezmyšlenkovitě, automaticky a dokonce správně.
REPORTED SPEECH
http://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-exercise-reported-speech.php
http://www.usingenglish.com/quizzes/102.html
http://www.examenglish.com/grammar/B1_reported_speech.htm
Zmeny v nepriamej reči
Zmeny (slovesných) časov
Pri tvorbe nepriamej reči z priamej reči sa na sloveso po uvádzacej vete v minulom čase (napr. She told me that …) uplatní súslednosť časov. Výrok z priamej reči posúvame v nepriamej reči o jeden čas “naspäť”:
prítomný čas jednoduchý → minulý čas jednoduchý
prítomný čas priebehový → minulý čas priebehový
predprítomný čas jednoduchý → predminulý čas jednoduchý
predprítomný čas priebehový → predminulý čas priebehový
minulý čas jednoduchý → predminulý čas jednoduchý
minulý čas priebehový → predminulý čas priebehový
budúci čas s “WILL” → would
be going to → was / were going to
-
| PRIAMA REČ |
NEPRIAMA REČ |
| “I study hard,” he said. |
He said (that) he studied hard. |
| “I am studying hard,” he said. |
He said (that) he was studying hard. |
| “I have studied hard,” he said. |
He said (that) he had studied hard. |
| “I have been studying hard,” he said. |
He said (that) he had been studying hard. |
| “I studied hard,” he said. |
He said (that) he had studied hard. |
| “I was studying hard,” he said. |
He said (that) he had been studying hard. |
| “I will study hard,” he said. |
He said (that) he would study hard. |
| “I am going to study,” he said. |
He said (that) he was going to study hard. |
He told me he had hated science at school. (= veta v priamej reči: “I hated science at school.“)
Minulý čas jednoduchý sa mení na predminulý, no často ho pri prevode z priamej do nepriamej reči môžeme vo vete ponechať bez zmeny, najmä vtedy, ak veta obsahuje príslovkové určenie času alebo čas je z kontextu logicky známy a jasný.
All students knew (that) the war (had) started in 1939.
Predminulý čas sa nemení!
Minulý priebehový ostáva zvyčajne bez zmeny, ak ho prevádzame do nepriamej reči.
“I was cooking the dinner while Peter was listening to the radio.” → He said he was cooking the dinner while Peter was listening to the radio.
Predminulý čas v nepriamej reči sa môže vzťahovať až k trom odlišných časom v priamej reči. Presný význam nám vždy naznačí kontext, z ktorého daná veta pochádza:
“I‘ve done my homework.” → She said she‘d done her homework.
“I did my homework last week.” → She said she‘d done her homework the week before.
“I‘d done my homework before, but I did it again.” → She said she‘d done her homework before.
Zmeny pri modálnych slovesách
WILL → WOULD
CAN → COULD (ALEBO WOULD BE ABLE TO)
SHALL → WOULD
SHALL v ponukách a návrhoch → SHOULD
MAY (ak vyjadruje “možnosť”) → MIGHT
MAY (ak vyjadruje “povolenie”) → COULD
MUST (ak vyjadruje “istotu”) → bez zmeny
MUST (ak vyjadruje “povinnosť”) → HAD TO / MUST
COULD / MIGHT / OUGHT TO / USED TO / WOULD → bez zmeny
| PRIAMA REČ |
NEPRIAMA REČ |
| “I will study hard,” he said. |
He said (that) he would study hard. |
| “I can sing very well,” he said. |
He said (that) he could sing very well. |
| “We shall help you,” he said. |
They said (that) they would help me. |
| “”Shall I open the window,” he said. |
He aked if he should open the window. |
| “I may be back later,” he said. |
He said (that) he might be back later. |
| “You may do it,” he said. |
He said (that) we could do it. |
| “He must have some problems,” she said. |
She said (that) he must have some problems |
| “I must do it,” he said. |
He said (that) he had to do it. |
Zmeny pri príslovkách
Príslovky a príslovkové určenia z priamej reči do nepriamej meníme nasledovne:
| PRIAMA REČ |
NEPRIAMA REČ |
| here |
there |
| now |
then / at that moment |
| today, tonight, this morning / week … |
that day, that night, that morning / week … |
| tomorrow |
the next / following day |
| yesterday |
the day before, the previous day |
| ago |
before |
| last night / month |
the night / month before, the previous month |
| next week / year |
the next / following week / year |
‘I’ll wait for you here tomorrow,’ I said. → I told her I would wait for her there the next / following day.
Keď zámena THIS / THESE používame v príslovkových určeniach času, meníme ich na THAT / THOSE.
this month → that month
these years → those years
Ak tieto zámena nie sú súčasťou príslovkových určení časov, postupujeme nasledovne. Porovnajte!
“This book is interesting,” Fiona told me.
→ Fiona told me (that) the book was interesting
Ak THIS / THESE / THAT / THOSE používame ako “prídavné meno” - nachádza sa pred podstatným menom, nahrádza ho v nepriamej reči “THE“.
“This is an interesting book,” Fiona said.
→ Fiona said (that) it was an interesting book.
Ak THIS / THESE / THAT / THOSE používame ako “zámeno” - nenachádza sa pred podstatným menom, nahrádza ho vo v nepriamej reči “IT“, poprípade “THEY / THEM“.
Zmeny pri zámenách
Zámena sa v nepriamej reči pri reprodukovaní výroku z priamej reči menia podľa toho, kto reprodukuje koho priamu reč. Dôležitým faktorom je aj to, komu ju reprodukuje. Všetky tieto zmeny vychádzajú vždy z daného kontextu. Všimnite si!
“I love you.” sa v nepriamej reči zmení na napr. She said she loved me.
V priamej reči máme zámeno “I”- je to človek, ktorý výrok hovorí. Ak vetu prevedieme na nepriamu reč, musíme i toto zámeno zmeniť. Ak nemáme kontext, je veľmi komplikované určiť kto – komu niečo hovorí, preto sa vždy riadime podľa kontextu.
Kedy k zmene (slovesných) časov nedochádza?
Ak sloveso (said, told apod.) uvádzajúce nepriamu reč je v prítomnom čase.
Prítomný čas v uvádzajúcej vete vyjadruje, že výrok padol iba nedávno a je stále relevantný / aktuálny. V takýchto prípadoch nedochádza k zmene časov.
“I‘m hungry.” → Peter says he‘s hungry.
Ak výrok obsahuje všeobecné pravdy, stále stavy apod.
“Water boils at 100 °C.” → She said that water boils at 100 °C.
Ak hovoriaci reprodukuje výrok hneď po tom ako bol vyslovený.
“I will take a bus,” she said. → She said she will take a bus. (bezprostredné / okamžité reprodukovanie, ktoré je aktuálne)
“I will take a bus,” she said. → She said she would take a bus. (neskoršie reprodukovanie, ktoré je už neaktuálne)
Ak niečo, čo hovoriaci povedal stále platí (je aktuálne). Toto použitie sa vzťahuje hlavne na situácie, kedy je v priamej reči budúci čas. V takom prípade ho bez zmeny ponechávame aj v nepriamej reči.
She said that she will cook the dinner. – Povedala, že mi uvarí – stále na to čakám.
She said that she would cook the dinner. – Povedala, že mi uvarí – už na to nečakám (buď mi už navarila alebo nie)
Ak reprodukujeme vety, ktoré obsahujú druhý alebo tretí kondicionál.
Druhý kondicionál: “If I won the lottery, I would travel the world,” she said.
→ She said (that) if she won the lottery, she would travel the world.
Tretí kondicionál: “If I had taken a taxi, I wouldn’t have missed the plane,” she said.
→ She said (that) if she had taken a taxi, she wouldn’t have missed the plane.
Ak reprodukujeme výrok, ktorý je v podstate citátom.
Dalai Lama said that we can never obtain peace in the outer world until we make peace with ourselves.
Ak reprodukujeme nejaký príbeh / historku, nie je za potreby meniť minulý čas na predminulý.
“I was waiting for my wife, and I saw what happened,” he said.
→ He said he was waiting for his wife and saw what happened.
CONDITIONAL I
1. Use
It is possible to fulfil a condition which is given in the if-clause.
2. Form
3. Examples
The if-clause can be at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
CONDITIONAL II
1. Use
It is theoretically possible to fulfil a condition which is given in the if-clause.
2. Form
3. Examples
The if-clause can be at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
CAUSATIVE VERBS
Let
FORM
[let + person + verb]
USE
This construction means "to allow someone to do something."
Examples:
- John let me drive his new car.
- Will your parents let you go to the party?
- I don't know if my boss will let me take the day off.
Make
FORM
[make + person + verb]
USE
This construction means "to force someone to do something."
Examples:
- My teacher made me apologize for what I had said.
- Did somebody make you wear that ugly hat?
- She made her children do their homework.
Have
FORM
[have + person + verb]
USE
This construction means "to give someone the responsibility to do something."
Examples:
- Dr. Smith had his nurse take the patient's temperature.
- Please have your secretary fax me the information.
- I had the mechanic check the brakes.
Get
FORM
[get + person + to + verb]
USE
This construction usually means "to convince to do something" or "to trick someone into doing something."
Examples:
- Susie got her son to take the medicine even though it tasted terrible.
- How can parents get their children to read more?
- The government TV commercials are trying to get people to stop smoking.
Get vs. Have
Sometimes "get someone to do something" is interchangeable with "have someone do something," but these expressions do not mean exactly the same thing.
Examples:
- I got the mechanic to check my brakes.
- I had the mechanic check my brakes.
-
PRACTISE:
http://www.englishpage.com/minitutorials/letexercise.htm
TENSES
PAST PERFECT (SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS)
someone had played
ZÁPOR:
someone had not played
OTÁZKA:
had someone played?
someone had been going
ZÁPOR:
someone had not been going
OTÁZKA:
had someone been going?
Predminulý čas jednoduchý (past perfect simple)
Predminulý čas používame vtedy, ak chceme ujasniť, že dej, o ktorom hovoríme, prebehol ešte pred nejakým iným minulým dejom.
I knew I had forgotten my keys.
Ak sa nad predminulým časom zamyslíte, určite si položíte jednu dôležitú otázku. Ako by sa veta zmenila, ak by sme namiesto predminulého času použili obyčajný minulý čas. Pozrite sa na nasledujúci príklad:
1. When we arrived, the film had started.
2. When we arrived, the film started.
1. V prvej vete uvádzame, že keď sme prišli, film už bežal (začal pred našim príchodom). V tejto vete zdôrazňujeme to, že začiatok filmu sme napr. nevideli – začiatok sa odohral pred našim príchodom.
2. V druhej vete uvádzame, že sme najprv prišli a potom film začal. Minulý čas nám hovorí o tom, ako sa deje odohrali v chronologickom poradí (ako šli presne za sebou – jeden po druhom).
Predminulý čas používame pre ukončené deje, ktoré mali viditeľné výsledky v minulosti.
- My mother was very happy because she had met him.
Predminulý čas používame rovnako so slovesami HOPE / INTEND / EXPECT, ak hovoríme o plánoch, ktoré neboli splnené / uskutočnené:
- I had hoped to talk to him but he was not at home.
Predminulý čas môžeme použiť aj vo vetách, kde priamo uvádzame čas.
- I got to work at six but John had arrived at five.
Porovnajte rovnako PRESENT PERFECT s PAST PERFECT:
- The window is open. I have opened it.
- The window was open. I had opened it.
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE and PAST SIMPLE
Predminulý čas jednoduchý vs. minulý čas jednoduchý
1) Predminulý čas nepoužívame vtedy, ak hovoríme, že niečo jednoducho v minulosti (pred nejakým časom) prebehlo.
- I am reading an interesting book. I borrowed it from the library yesterday. (! NIE
I had borrowed it from the library yesterday.) – nie je tu potreba použiť predminulý čas
2) Predminulý čas nepoužívame vtedy, ak popisujeme deje, ktoré sa odohrali jeden za druhým. Ak sa však nejaký z chronologického poradia vymaní, predminulý použiť môžeme.
- My father got in the car, started the engine and looked at us.
Najprv nasadol do auta, potom ho naštartoval a neskôr sa na nás pozrel. – takto sa deje v skutočnosti odohrali.
Predstavme si inú situáciu: Prídeme do školy, tašku položíme na stôl, otvoríme ju, vybalíme si veci a v tom si všimneme, že sme kľúče nechali doma.
Všetky deje idú pekne za sebou, odohráva sa jeden dej za druhým, avšak dej “zabudnutia kľúčov” sa odohral pred všetkými ostatnými – preto pre tento konkrétny dej použijeme predminulý čas (…..I realized I had left my keys at home.)
3) Spojky AS SOON AS, WHEN, ONCE a ďalšie…
Tieto spojky používame vtedy, ak hovoríme o dejoch, ktoré sa udiali jeden po druhom. Predminulý čas v týchto vetách nie je potrebný, pretože sa v rozprávaní posúvame od jedného deja k druhému. Deje nasledujú v chronologickom poradí, z vety je to viditeľné:
- After she wrote the letter, she went out.
V týchto vetách však môžeme použiť aj predminulý čas bez výraznej zmeny vo význame:
- After she had written the letter, she went out.
Ak je našim cieľom zdôrazniť, že dej vo vedľajšej vete nemá priamy súvis s dejom v hlavnej vete, je od deja v hlavnej vety oddelený / nie je na ňom závislý – používame predminulý čas.
-
- After he had cleaned the car, he went for a walk for an hour.
Ak však chceme zdôrazniť, že druhý dej je výsledkom prvého, preferujeme použiť minulý čas jednoduchý pre oba deje:
- Virginia Evans became famous after she published her work.
BY s predminulým časom
Predminulý čas používame často s BY + určitým časom, ak chceme vyjadriť, čo sa do danej doby stalo.
- I had completed my studies by 2010.
BY sa nachádza často aj vo väzba BY THE TIME (THAT). Predminulý čas umiestňujeme do hlavnej vety, pričom hneď po BY THE TIME (THAT) sa používa minulý čas.
- By the time we arrived, the film had already started.
Predminulý čas priebehový (past perfect continuous)
1) Dej, ktoré prebiehal určitý dobu pred nejakým iným minulým dejom.
- We had been waiting there for more than three hours when they finally arrived.
- She had been working there for two years when she broke her leg.
2) Jeden dej viedol k inému deju
- My legs hurt because I had been plaing football all day. - Aký dej viedol k stavu “bolesti nôh” – dej hrania futbalu
Rovnaké použitie nájdeme aj pri PRESEN PERFECT. Porovnajte:
-
- My T-shirt IS dirty. I HAVE been working in the garden.
- My T-shirt WAS dirty. I HAD been working in the garden.
3) Dôraz na trvaní deja
Ak dávame dôraz na čas, počas ktorého dej prebiehal používame predminulý priebehový čas.
Ak je pre nás výsledok / efekt deja dôležitejší, použijeme predminulý čas jednoduchý.
- She‘d been working in the garden. She was dead tired. (= dôraz na trvaní deja)
- She‘d worked in the garden. It looked great. (= dôraz na výsledku deja)
Ak hovoríme o tom ako dlho sa niečo dialo do nejakého bodu v minulosti, kladieme si teda otázku HOW LONG – používame predminulý čas priebehový.
Ak hovoríme o tom, koľko krát sa niečo udialo do nejakého bodu v minulosti, kladieme si teda otázku HOW MUCH / HOW MANY - používame predminulý čas jednoduchý.
- She had been playing football for 3 hours when they arrived. (= for 3 hours…)
- I‘d heard the result many times before. (= many times…)
Porovnajte PREDMINULÝ ČAS PRIEBEHOVÝ a MINULÝ ČAS PRIEBEHOVÝ:
- When we came, they had been watching TV. (= prišli sme po tom, čo dopozerali TV – dej pozerania TV prebehol pred našim príchodom)
- When we came, they were watching TV. (= prišli sme a oni práve pozerali TV – dej prebiehal počas toho ako sme prišli)
PAST PERFECT and PAST SIMPLE
http://www.englishguide.sk/minuly-cas-jednoduchy-priebehovy-vs-predminuly-cas/
- When Lisa arrived home, John did his homework.
- Keď Lisa prišla domov, John si napísal svoje domáce úlohy.
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MINULÝ ČAS JEDNODUCHÝ sme použili v oboch vetách. Prečo? Pretože MINULÝ ČAS JEDNODUCHÝ používame vtedy, ak chceme uviesť deje v takom poradí, v akom sa odohrali (jeden po druhom).
- NAJPRV Lisa prišla domov, POTOM John začal písať jeho domáce úlohy.
-
- When Lisa arrived home, John was doing his homework.
- Keď Lisa prišla domov, John si práve robil svoje domáce úlohy.
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V jednej vete sme použili MINULÝ ČAS JEDNODUCHÝ, v druhej vete naopak MINULÝ ČAS PRIEBEHOVÝ. Prečo? Tieto dva časy používame veľmi často v kombinácii (ako vidíme vyššie). V určitý okamih v minulosti istý dej PREBIEHAL. Prebiehajúci dej v angličtine často určujeme časovým určením (THIS TIME YESTERDAY, AT 6.30 …) alebo iným dejom, ktorý do UŽ prebiehajúceho deja vstúpil.
Pre DLHŠÍ (už prebiehajúci) dej používame MINULÝ ČAS PRIEBEHOVÝ a pre KRATŠÍ (náhle vstupujúci) dej používame MINULÝ ČAS JEDNODUCHÝ.
Dej vyjadrený MINULÝM ČASOM PRIEBEHOVÝM začal EŠTE PRED dejom vyjadreným časom JEDNODUCHÝM. Rovnako si treba uvedomiť, že tento DLHŠÍ dej prebiehal i počas toho ako nastal KRATŠÍ dej.
- NAJPRV začal John písať svoje úlohy a písal ich aj počas toho ako prišla Lisa. V momente, keď Lisa prišla, tento dej PREBIEHAL. Lisa ho teda videla úlohy robiť.
-
- When Lisa arrived home, John had done his homework.
- Keď Lisa prišla domov, John už mal úlohy napísané.
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V jednej vete sme použili MINULÝ ČAS, v druhej vete naopak PREDMINULÝ ČAS. Prečo? Ak chceme v minulosti upresniť a ujasniť, že istý dej sa neodohral chronologicky za predošlým, ale že sa odohral ešte PRED ním, musíme použiť PREDMINULÝ ČAS.
Poradie viet v anglickej vete, nezodpovedá presnej skutočnosti ako tieto deje prebehli. PREDMINULÝ ČAS nám bližšie určí, ktorý dej začal / prebehol a celý sa UKONČIL než začal iný dej.
Ak chceme hovoriť o všetkom, čo sa dejovo stalo a aj ukončilo pred LISA ARRIVED HOME, musíme použiť PREDMINULÝ ČAS.
- NAJPRV John napísal úlohy, POTOM prišla LISA. Johna úlohy písať nevidela. Tento dej prebehol a ukončil sa ešte PRED jej príchodom.
-
Porovnajte:
- When I got to the cinema, the film started. (NAJPRV som prišiel do kina, POTOM začal film.)
- When I got to the cinema, the film had started. (NAJPRV začal film, POTOM som prišiel do kina ja.)
USED TO/USUALLY
https://elt.oup.com/student/englishfile/intermediate/a_grammar/file04/nef_int_grammar04_c02?cc=us&selLanguage=en
Used To
FORM
[used to + VERB]
Example:
- I used to go to the beach every day.
It is better not to use "used to" in questions or negative forms; however, this is sometimes done in informal spoken English. It is better to ask questions and create negative sentences using Simple Past.
USE 1 Habit in the Past
"Used to" expresses the idea that something was an old habit that stopped in the past. It indicates that something was often repeated in the past, but it is not usually done now.
Examples:
- Jerry used to study English.
- Sam and Mary used to go to Mexico in the summer.
- I used to start work at 9 o'clock.
- Christine used to eat meat, but now she is a vegetarian.
USE 2 Past Facts and Generalizations
"Used to" can also be used to talk about past facts or generalizations which are no longer true.
Examples:
- I used to live in Paris.
- Sarah used to be fat, but now she is thin.
- George used to be the best student in class, but now Lena is the best.
- Oranges used to cost very little in Florida, but now they are quite expensive.
"Used to" vs. Simple Past
Both Simple Past and "Used to" can be used to describe past habits, past facts and past generalizations; however, "used to" is preferred when emphasizing these forms of past repetition in positive sentences. On the other hand, when asking questions or making negative sentences, Simple Past is preferred.
Examples:
- You used to play the piano.
- Did you play the piano when you were young?
- You did not play the piano when you were young.
ACTIVE / PASSIVE
Examples:
- Jerry used to pay the bills.
- The bills used to be paid by Jerry.
The past perfect simple expresses an action taking place before a certain time in the past.
https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/past-perfect-simple/exercises
Form of Past Perfect Simple
| |
Positive |
Negative |
Question |
| |
I had spoken. |
I had not spoken. |
Had I spoken? |
For irregular verbs, use the past participle form (see list of irregular verbs, 3rd column). For regular verbs, just add ed.
Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ed
| Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ed |
Example |
| after final e, only add d |
love – loved |
final consonant after a short, stressed vowel
or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled |
admit – admitted
travel – travelled |
| final y after a consonant becomes i |
hurry – hurried |
Use of Past Perfect
- action taking place before a certain time in the past
(putting emphasis only on the fact, not the duration)
Example: Before I came here, I had spoken to Jack.
- Conditional Sentences Type III (condition that was not given in the past)
Example: If I had seen him, I would have talked to him.
Signal Words
- already, just, never, not yet, once, until that day (with reference to the past, not the present)
- If-Satz Typ III (If I had talked, …)
Present perfect simple
(Predprítomný čas jednoduchý)
Je to čas, ktorý spája minulosť s prítomnosťou. Označuje aktivity, ktoré buď prebehli v minulosti a nejakým spôsobom súvisia s prítomnosťou alebo začali v minulosti a pretrvávajú do prítomnosti.
1/ Ako tvoríme predprítomný čas jednoduchý
Tvoríme ho pomocným slovesom "have / has (v 3. os. jed. čísla)" v spojení s trpným príčastím plnovýznamového slovesa.
a) oznamovacie vety
Pozor !!!
V bežnej neformálnej komunikácii sa používa skrátený tvar pomocného slovesa:
have -> have -> 've (z pôvodného "have" vypadla slabika "ha" a nahradili sme ju apostrofom )
Pr.:
I've done it
We've already asked
has -> has -> 's
Pr.:
He's been there.
My brother's left.
b) opytovacie vety bez opytovacieho slova
c) opytovacie vety s opytovacím slovom
d) záporné vety
2/ Použitie jednoduchého predprítomného času
- označuje deje, ktoré majú svoj (pôvod) začiatok v minulosti a pokračujú resp. platia aj v súčasnosti. Spájajú minulosť s prítomnosťou a často s nimi používame nasledovné časové príslovky: before now, so far, up till now, up to the present, It's the first time ..., ever, never, not...ever, since, for
past -------------------------------> present
Pr.:
She has never eaten a mango before. (Ešte nikdy predtým nejedla mango. - hovorím to v súčasnosti a mám na mysli obdobie od minulosti až k momentu prehovoru)
Tom hasn't been home since he was a boy.
I've lived here for 5 years.
I've planted about 20 bushes so far this morning. (do dnes rána)
Pozor!!! Všimnite si rozdiel pri zmene časov:
I've lived here for 5 years. - žijem tu už 5 rokov (stále)
I lived here for 5 years. - žil som tu, ale už tu nebývam
I am here for 5 weeks. - chystám sa tu zostať 5 týždňov
I've been here for 5 weeks. - som tu už 5 týždňov
- deje, ktoré sa uskutočnili v presne nešpecifikovanom čase resp. nie je dôležité, kedy sa odohrali, ale podstatné je, že vôbec prebehli. Zaujímajú nás skôr ich dôsledky. Používajú sa bez časových prísloviek alebo s príslovkami:
Pr.:
Have you written that letter? (zaujíma ma výsledok činnosti t.j. či je napísaný)
Has he invited his parents for the party? (chcem vedieť, či prídu t.j. aký je dôsledok tejto aktivity)
Ale
Did he invite his parents for the party last week? (zaujíma ma nie dôsledok ale čas, kedy ich pozval)
Príslovky typické pre tento druh deja:
I've just arrived. - just stojí vždy za "have/has"
He's recently arrived from London.
I've already done it. - already sa používa len v oznamovacích vetách a stojí vždy za "have/has"
Have you passed your driving test yet ? - yet sa používa len v otázkach a záporoch
I haven't passed my driving test yet.
I still haven't passed my driving test.
- opakované deje, ktoré začali v minulosti a opakujú sa aj v prítomnosti, alebo predpokladáme, že sa budú uskutočňovať aj naďalej. Používame s nimi príslovky often, frequently, three/four/many times
Pr.:
She has always worked hard. - vždy pracovala ťažko a aj bude
I've watched him on TV for several times. - videl som ho v TV niekoľkokrát a je predpoklad, že ho ešte uvidím.
Since alebo for?
Since - používame s časovými výrazmi, ktoré označujú konkrétny bod na časovej osi
He`s lived here since 1998.
We`ve known each other since our childhood.
I haven`t seen him since he left.
prekladáme "od / odkedy"
He`s lived here for 15 years.
We`ve known each other for a long time.
I haven`t seen him for two weeks.
prekladáme "už"
http://gymnolearn.euweb.cz/index.php?act=test&lang=aj&chapter=tenses&exf=cv1&sub=prespersim
http://gymnolearn.euweb.cz/index.php?act=test&lang=aj&chapter=tenses&exf=cv2&sub=prespersim
http://gymnolearn.euweb.cz/index.php?act=test&lang=aj&chapter=tenses&exf=cv3&sub=prespersim
Ak hovoriaci reprodukuje niečo, o čom sa vie, že je to pravda (niečo, čo je platné), časy môžeme buď zmeniť alebo ponechať bez zmeny. Väčšinou sa uprednostňuje druhá možnosť.
